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The R&D institutions

As in the preceding three chapters, so in this chapter on Uganda's efforts to advance science and technology we shall begin with the individual institutions. Once we have described the individual institutions, we shall aggregate their activities, using the common denominator of budget allocations. When we have an estimate of the amount of R&D carried out within Uganda, we shall move on to the university, within which scientific and technical education takes place. Combining university expenditures on the pursuit of science and technology with those in the R&D institutes yields a measure of the contribution of government. This will be augmented by small amounts to allow for scientific and technical activities carried out within productive firms, mainly those within the state sector, but also in the private sector.

Table 6.5 Uganda: government revenues, expenditures and investment 1969-1991

Year Government current revenue (billions current USh) Government current expenditure (billions current USh) Government surplus (+) or deficit (-) (billions current USh) Government capital payments (billions current USh) Government consumption (billions of current USh) Total gross domestic investment (billions of current USh) Gross investment as % of GDP
1969 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. 0.009 0.012 15.0
1970 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. 0.013 13.3
1971 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. 0.016 15.2
1972 0.015 n.a. -0.009 n.a. n.a. 0.012 11.0
1973 0.012 n.a. -0.009 n.a. n.a. 0.011 8.2
1974 0.012 n.a. -0.015 n.a. n.a. 0.017 10.7
1975 0.021 0.027 -0.012 0.006 n.a. 0.017 7.6
1976 0.025 0.031 -0.013 0.008 n.a. 0.015 5.5
1977 0.034 0.039 -0.013 0.008 n.a. 0.030 5.5
1978 0.058 0.046 -0.002 0.014 n.a. 0.046 7.8
1979 0.026 0.049 -0.035 0.012 n.a. 0.056 6.4
1980 0.040 0.067 -0.039 0.012 n.a. 0.077 6.1
1981 0.031 0.106 -0.101 0.025 n.a. 0.150 6.0
1982 0.277 0.346 -0.146 0.076 n.a. 0.290 7.9
1983 0.537 0.573 -0.134 0.098 0.183 0.530 9.0
1984 0.938 1.017 -0.221 0.142 0.920 0.805 7.7
1985 1.70 1.95 -0.64 0.36 2.13 2.04 7.7
1986 3.23 3.35 -1.35 1.22 4.68 6.12 10.0
1987 5.0 8.0 -3.0 n.a. 14.4 25.9 11.8
1988 22.3 27.2 -4.9 n.a. 38.7 64.8 10.6
1989 49.7 58.4 -8.7 n.a. 72.4 119 10.3
1990 86.5 105.5 -19.0 2.1 100.8 178 11.4
1991 207 320 -113 111 172.4 268 12.4
1992 435 671 -236 252 n.a. n.a. n.a.

Sources:
1987-1990 columns 1-4, Government of Uganda, Background to the Budget 1990-1991, Tables 12a and 12b, p. 167 (for the fiscal years 1986/7 through 1989/90)
1969-1990 remainder, World Bank, World Tables 1991, 1993
1991, 1992: Government of Uganda, Ministry of Finance, Financial Statement of Revenue and Expenditure 1991/2 (1991 approved estimate, 1992, estimate)

Table 6.6 Uganda: debt 1970-1991 (millions current US dollars outstanding at end of year)

Year External debt total Long term debt total Short term debt total Private sector debt, total (including non-guaranteed debt) Public sector debt
1970 138 138 0 1.2 137
1971 172 172 0 1.4 171
1972 178 178 0 1.3 177
1973 177 177 0 1.2 176
1974 203 203 0 1.2 202
1975 208 208 0 1.1 207
1976 242 242 0 1.0 241
1977 333 299 34 1.7 331
1978 442 421 21 4.3 438
1979 570 540 30 4.7 565
1980 695 632 64 15.0 680
1981 729 697 32 13.9 715
1982 893 852 41 12.6 880
1983 1,012 982 30 9.9 1,002
1984 1,065 1,023 42 9.0 1,056
1985 1,225 1,181 44 10.7 1,214
1986 1,400 1,334 67 12.6 1,387
1987 1,916 1,850 66 18.5 1,897
1988 1,946 1,863 83 19.2 1,927
1989 2,231 2,123 107 19.5 2,211
1990 2,637 2,495 143 21.1 2,616
1991 2,830 2,655 175 21.0 2,809

Source: World Bank, World Tables 1991,1993

Table 6.7 Uganda: debt servicing 1981-1986

Year Total debt outstanding (millions current US dollars) Official debt (millions current US dollars) Debt to IMF (millions current US dollars) Debt to World Bank (IBRD/IDA) (millions current US dollars) Private debt (millions current US dollars) Total debt as % of GDP Total debt service as % of GDP Total debt service as % of total exports
1981 772 600 186 61.2 172 30 2.3 21
1982 969 744 269 91.8 225 35 2.0 16
1983 1,083 896 354 123 187 37 2.6 21
1984 1,084 927 315 217 158 39 3.3 22
1985 1,176 1,039 282 318 137 45 2.4 17
1986 1,199 1,091 229 401 108 45 1.1 7.0

Sources:
Strack and Schonherr, 1989. (There are discrepancies between these figures and those in Table 6.6, chiefly in the volume of private sector debt)

Table 6.8 Uganda: balance of payments 1970-1991

Year Total exports of goods and services (millions current $US) Total imports of goods and services (millions current $US) Balance on current account (before official transfers) (millions current $US) Exports of coffee (millions current $US) Exports of tea (millions current $US)
1970 297 271 19 n.a. n.a.
1971 284 365 -88 1.2 1.7
1972 292 269 13 0.8 1.0
1973 290 246 40 0.6 1.0
1974 308 331 -28 0.9 1.1
1975 252 321 -72 2.0 1.2
1976 336 295 -35 47 1.0
1977 556 485 66 73 1.5
1978 337 472 -143 75 1.5
1979 414 387 10 58 1.2
1980 331 450 -121 96 2.0
1981 274 392 -118 102 2.1
1982 382 524 -123 112 2.3
1983 384 543 -93 112 2.3
1984 406 517 -78 109 2.2
1985 399 514 -45 120 2.4
1986 398 569 -72 113 2.3
1987 365 694 -219 152 3.1
1988 314 760 -446 162 3.3
1989 275 766 -491 167 3.4
1990 224 739 -515 173 3.5
1991 198 695 -497 163 3.3

Source:
Exports, imports, balance: World Bank, World Tables 1991, 1993
Coffee, tea: Government of Uganda, Ministry of Agriculture, Secretariat for Research

The first institutes that we will consider are those devoted to advancing science and technology in agriculture. (The background is provided in the comprehensive study of Opio-Ogongo, 1992.) Administratively, these are not separate research institutes, as they are in the other three countries, but dependencies of the Ministry of Agriculture. (This Ministry is called the Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forest, and is an amalgamation of the three former separate ministries. Using shorthand, we shall call it the Ministry of Agriculture.) Within the Ministry of Agriculture, there is a Secretary for Research, under whom the various research divisions are located. The Research Secretary and the majority of the research activity are located at the campus of the Ministry of Agriculture on the outskirts of Entebbe. There the most important research activities are carried out, commencing with coffee.

Research on coffee represents the largest single allocation of funds and of personnel to a single commodity. Aided by funds from abroad, the programme employs approximately 20 persons, led by the Coffee Coordinator. The projects bear considerable resemblance to the projects carried out by the sister Coffee Research Foundation in Kenya: research into the coffee berry disease, into other viruses that afflict the coffee plant, and into alleviating problems arising during planting, cultivation, harvesting, processing, storage and shipment.

Of the other research programmes undertaken within the Ministry of Agriculture some are new programmes, some are extensions of existing programmes, but the majority have prospered in recent years with the influx of foreign assistance. Tables 6.9 and 6.10 illustrate the increases that have occurred. We see that during the years of Uganda's turmoil, expenditures on research in coffee and other crops remained minimal, covering no more than the salaries and the wages of the employees, as the low amounts allocated to Development items indicate. It was only after the initiation of the Structural Adjustment Programme, and the arrival of funds supporting research, that expenditures were able to increase. The bulk of the foreign donations have still to be expended, so expenditures can be expected to increase substantially in the next few years (raising the estimate for 1991/2). Since substantial funds are allocated to the scheme for replanting coffee trees that had outlived their useful life, or had been destroyed during the chaotic decade (see Tables 6.12 and 6.13) not all the expenditures can be counted as R&D. Nonetheless, if the research into coffee is effective, the new trees should be yielding larger crops, which will increase Uganda's output and exports.

Table 6.10 also gives an indication of the relation between requests for funds for research in agriculture and actual expenditures: the last two columns summarize the figures. Within these averages for the entire Ministry there are considerable variations by project: the greatest variation occurs between the Coffee Research Group and the Appropriate Technology Group. Commencing with the requests of the research officers, one can follow the sums subsequently recommended by the Director of Research; the sums accepted and recommended by the Research Secretary of the Ministry; the sums accepted and recommended by the Minister; and finally the sums approved by the Economic Planning Board. The contrast between the figures for the two research groups is quite startling: the Coffee Research Group has received funds equalling approximately half the original requests of the research officers, whereas the Appropriate Technology Group has received only 5 per cent of the funds its research officers requested.

Table 6.9 Uganda: public expenditures on agricultural R&D, as percentages of government revenues and GDP arising in agriculture 1981/2-1991/2

Year Expenditures on agricultural R&D (millions current USh) Government current revenue (millions current USh) GDP arising in agriculture (millions current USh) Expenditures on agricultural research as % of
Government current revenue GDP arising in agriculture
1981/82 0.022 31 658 0.071 0.003
1982/83 0.039 277 930 0.014 0.004
1983/84 0.051 537 1,360 0.009 0.004
1984/85 0.083 938 1,935 0.009 0.004
1985/86 0.187 1,60 5,651 0.010 0.003
1986/87 0.702 3,228 13,751 0.020 0.005
1987/88 n.a. 5,000 47,669 n.a. n.a.
1988/89 125 22,300 136,046 0.56 0.09
1989/90 321 49,700 260,744 0.65 0.12
1990/91 486a 86,500 n.a. 0.56 n.a.
1991/92 200 a 207,000 n.a. 0.10 n.a.

Source:
Government of Uganda, Background to the Budget 1991/2
Note:
a signifies Approved Estimates

Table 6.10 Uganda: Ministry of Agriculture requests and expenditures for agricultural research 1968/9-1991/2 (thousands current USh)

Year Recurrent expenditures Development expenditures Expenditures as % of requests
Requests of Ministry to Treasury Approved estimates Actual expenditures Requests of Ministry to Treasury Approved estimates Actual expenditures Recurrent Development
1968/9 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. 0.05 n.a. n.a.
1969/70 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. 0.6 n.a. n.a. n.a.
1970/1 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. 0.11 n.a. n.a.
1971/2 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. 0.11 n.a. n.a.
1972/3 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. 0.11 n.a. n.a.
1973/4 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a.
1974/5 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a.
1975/6 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a.
1976/7 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a.
1977/8 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. 0.27 n.a. n.a.
1978/9 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. 0.15 n.a. n.a. n.a.
1979/80 n.a. n.a. n.a. 0.18 n.a. 0.21 n.a. n.a.
1980/1 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. 0.33 n.a. n.a. n.a.
1981/2 n.a. 84 22 2.2 n.a. n.a. 26 n.a.
1982/3 n.a. 124 39 n.a. 2.8 1.4 31 50
1983/4 n.a. 180 51 n.a. 5.7 n.a. 28 n.a.
1984/5 n.a. 307 83 14.6 n.a. n.a. 27 n.a.
1985/6 n.a. 421 187 n.a. n.a. n.a. 44 n.a.
1986/7 n.a. 1,925 702 n.a. n.a. n.a. 37 n.a.
1987/8 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. 5,456 484 n.a. 9
1988/9 n.a. n.a. 125,000 n.a. 987 n.a. n.a. n.a.
1989/90 n.a. n.a. 321,000 13,339 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a.
1990/1 n.a. 486,432 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a.
1991/2 200,386P 200,386P n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a.

Sources:
1968/9-1989/90: Government of Uganda, Draft Estimates of Revenue and Expenditure (recurrent and Capital). (After 1981/82, includes research on animal industries and fisheries)
1990/1, 1991/2 Government of Uganda, Ministry of Agriculture, Secretariat for Research
Notes:
P signifies preliminary, superceded by the figure 612,ODO in Table 6.12

Table 6.11 Uganda: budgets for R&D and reconstruction by Ministry and project 1990/1 (millions of current USh)

Ministry Project Approved estimates (millions current USh)
Recurrent expenditures Development (capital expenditures)
Section 1 (short term, by Ugandan government) Long-term Total development expenditures
Ugandan government Foreign donors Sub-total
Agriculture, livestock, fisheries Agriculture, total 427 30 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a.
Coffee 131 0 0 0 0 0
Agricultural tools n.a. n.a. 107 452 559 n.a.
Livestock 37 10 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a.
Fisheries 22 0 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a.
Agriculture, livestock fisheries total 486 40 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a.
Industry and technology Industry and technology total 199 31 0 0 0 31
Minerals, energy and water Minerals, energy and water total 2,040 n.a. 0 0 0 n.a.
Commerce Commerce, total 397 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a.
Makerere University Total 3,571 417 145 224 369 786
Total 1990/1 Total (less medicine) 6,693 488+ n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a.

Source:
Government of Uganda, Ministry of Finance, Estimates for Recurrent and Development Expenditures for 1991/2

Table 6.12 Uganda: budgets for R&D and reconstruction by Ministry and project 1991/2 (millions of current USh)

Ministry Project Approved estimates (millions current USh)
Recurrent expenditures Development (capital expenditures)
Section 1 (short term, by Ugandan government) Section 2 (long-term) Total development expenditures
Ugandan government Foreign donors Sub-total
Agriculture, livestock and fisheries Agriculture, total 612 66 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a.
Coffee 157 n.a. 29 3,600 3,629 3,629+
Agricultural tools n.a. n.a 18 641 659 659+
Livestock, total 165 8 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a.
Dairy n.a. n.a. 75 4,083 4,158 n.a.
Fisheries, total 169 0 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a.
Agriculture, livestock and fisheries total 947 474 3,831 30,587 34,418 34,492
Industry and technology Science and technology n.a. n.a. 0 368 368 368+
Workshop for small scale industry n.a. n.a. 81 155 236 236+
Food technology and ceramics n.a. n.a. 76 0 76 76+
Industry and technology total 313 31 381 3,550 3,931 3,%2
Minerals, energy and water Minerals, energy and water Total 2,695 472 1,770 24,616 26,386 26,858
Potable water n.a. n.a. 470 10,410 10,880 10,880+
Forest rehabilitation n.a. n.a. 67 3,753 3,820 3,820+
Commerce Commerce, cooperative, marketing total 1,355 48 312 6,594 6,906 6,954
Makerere University Total 6,286 321 286 0 286 607
Works, transport, communication Total n.a. n.a. 2,549 24,768 27,317 27,317+
Total 1991/2 Total (less medicine, land, housing and urban development) 5,596+ 946+ 9,129 90,115 99,244 100,190+

Source:
Government of Uganda, Ministry of Finance, Estimates fat Recurrent and Development Expenditures for 1991/2

Table 6.13 Uganda: estimated expenditures on science and technology, total and relative to GDP and to government revenues 1990/1 and 1991/2

Fiscal year Estimated public expenditures on S&T (millions current USh) Total domestic revenues (millions current USh) Expenditures on S&T by government, as % of total government revenues Estimated total expenditures on S&T (millions current USh)a GDP (millions current USh) Total expenditures on S&T as % of GDP
1990/1 1,425+ 141,000 1.0+ 2,101+ 1,400,000 0.15
1991/2 6,184 204,000 3.0 40,321 1,800,000 2.2

Source:
see Tables 6.1, 6.4, 6.11 and 6.12. Expenditures on science and technology are assumed to consist of recurrent expenditures for the Ministry of Agriculture and Industry, and development expenditures for agriculture, industry and Makerere University. Public expenditures consist of all of Section 1 and the Ugandan government's portion of Section 2 of the accounts
GDP estimates, reported for calendar years in Table 6.1, are for the fiscal years
Note:
a: Total expenditures on science and technology include public expenditures, foreign donations, and private expenditures

Other, domestically consumed, crops seem also to be discriminated against. We have called this lack of attention to important, non-exportable crops the 'Banana Syndrome', because R&D on bananas, such a vital food in Uganda, is so neglected. Why should there be a 'Banana Syndrome'?

The explanation lies almost entirely in the support that research on coffee has drawn from foreign donors, and the lack of support for locally-consumed crops or for appropriate technology. Of the reasons suggested by Ugandans involved in the research, the chief one is based on the locus of decisions on research fundings; decisions are made chiefly in the aid agencies in the developed countries and reflect the priorities of the agencies and the beliefs of their employees. With these bodies Ugandans have relatively little contact and even less influence.

R&D in industry is the responsibility of a new Industrial Research Institute, established in 1990 and located administratively within the Ministry of Industry. So new is this industrial research institute that it is only just acquiring facilities and staff. A capital grant from the German government is permitting the design and construction of research laboratories; when they are complete research will be undertaken. The research agenda has not yet been fully established, but it appears that some activities will be directed towards improving the production of textiles, Uganda's largest industry and employer, and the processing of primary commodities.

As of the present, no overall agency exists within the Ugandan government to which the coordination of its R&D activities is assigned. However, most R&D expenditures are made by the government ministries, so an aggregation of data on expenditures on advancing science and technology can be drawn from the government's budget figures. This is done in Tables 6.11 and 6.12, the first for the fiscal year 1990/1 and the second for 1991/2. The fact that all the data are drawn from a single source is appropriate, for it symbolizes the importance of central government in determining how resources are to be allocated amongst different activities. In the other three countries that we studied, some research institutes had a considerable amount of freedom, both in soliciting funds and in determining how those funds should be allocated; in Uganda, the equivalent research bodies have less independence and authority. The major decisions on which activities are to be stimulated, and which curbed, is made at the ministerial level, upon recommendations from the Economic Planning Board (EPB). It is the EPB which has taken upon itself the responsibility for determining the structure of Uganda's economy in the future, through its current expenditures on advancing science and technology, as well as in the present, through its allocation of recurrent funds.


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