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Table F. Survey of expert knowledge and opinion on positive deviance in nutrition of young children: opinion scores by region, mean (SD)


  Sub- Saharan Africa Middle South Asia S.E. Asia, E. Asia Latin America Other developing Industrial Total N
  (N = 8) (N = 5) (N = 5) (N = 7) (N = 6) (N = 6) (N = 68) 68
A. BEHAVIOURAL, PSYCHOSOCIAL, AND CULTURAL FACTORS
1. Mother-child interactions
Early bonding between mother and infant 3.49 (0.15) 3.38 (0.77) 4.00 (0.00) 3.64 (0.63) 3.20 (1.03) 3.42 (0.79) 3.49 (0.75) 59
Positive "affect" or smiling happy mood between mother/child 3.67 (1.51) 3.31 (0.75) 3.57 (0.53) 3.15 (0.90) 3.30 (0.95) 3.57 (0.53) 3.38 (0.75) 56
Prompt response to child's hunger cues 3.38 (0.52) 3.38 (0.77) 2.75 (0.89) 3.43 (0.85) 3.80 (0.42) 3.43 (0.79) 3.38 (0.76) 60
Mother's coaxing or stimulating child to eat 2.29 (0.25) 2.92 (1.16) 2.57 (1.13) 2.09 (1.38) 2.60 (1.51) 2.43 (1.40) 2.50 (1.28) 54
Mother feeding older infant rather than letting infant feed self 1.38 (0.30) 2.50 (1.20) 2.29 (1.50) 1.64 (1.20) 2.11 (1.45) 3.00 (2.00) 2.04 (1.40) 47
Frequent close physical contact 3.29 (1.11) 3.31 (0.75) 3.38 (1.06) 3.50 (0.65) 3.50 (0.53) 2.86 (0.69) 3.34 (0.78) 59
Frequent physical care, cleaning, grooming 2.29 (1.25) 2.62 (1.19) 2.78 (1.09) 2.79 (1.12) 2.89 (0.93) 3.00 (0.82) 2.73 (1.06) 59
Frequent psychosocial stimulation 2.51 (1.51) 3.08 (1.32) 3.13 (1.01) 3.36 (1.01) 3.50 (0.71) 2.86 (0.90) 3.14 (1.15) 59
Lack of prolonged separation of child from mother 3.11 (1.05) 3.58 (0.51) 2.71 (1.89) 3.27 (1.27) 3.60 (0.70) 3.33 (0.82) 3.31 (0.07) 55
Consistent reinforcement of child's developmental achievements 2.57 (1.39) 3.18 (1.08) 2.63(1.19) 3.00 (0.96) 3.57 (0.79) 2.86 (1.46) 2.98 (1.12) 54
2. Behavioural characteristics of the child
Strong sucking reflex (in infants) 2.86 (1.46) 3.11 (0.60) 3.00 (1.22) 2.60 (0.97) 3.43 (0.98) 3.29 (0.76) 3.02 (0.99) 45
High neo-natal assessment score 2.25 (0.96) 2.71 (1.11) 3.67 (0.58) 2.50 (1.08) 2.71 (1.60) 3.33 (0.52) 2.78 (1.11) 37
Large appetite 3.00 (1.41) 2.90 (1.30) 3.13 (1.46) 2.30 (0.82) 3.33 (0.71) 2.83 (1.60) 2.90 (1.20) 51
Willingness to eat new foods or variety of foods 2.00 (1.63) 3.08 (1.19) 3.00 (1.15) 2.64 (0.92) 3.44 (0.73) 2.86 (0.69) 2.87 (1.12) 54
Well-defined hunger cues 2.25 (1.50) 3.09 (1.22) 2.75 (1.04) 2.91 (1.16) 3.17 (0.75) 2.57 (0.98) 2.85 (1.09) 48
Aggressive approach to obtaining food 3.43 (1.13) 3.08 (0.76) 2.43 (1.62) 2.50 (1.08) 2.67 (1.11) 2.80 (1.11) 2.80 (1.11) 51
Regular sleeping pattern 1.50 (1.73) 2.67 (1.15) 3.12 (1.13) 2.60 (1.08) 3.00 (0.82) 3.17 (0.75) 2.74 (1.13) 47
Rapid adaption to new stimuli 2.33 (1.15) 3.10 (0.88) 3.57 (0.79) 3.13 (0.64) 2.75 (0.89) 3.00 (0.63) 3.05 (0.83) 42
Enjoys interacting with people 3.00 (0.63) 2.81 (0.87) 3.33 (1.00) 3.00 (1.22) 3.00 (1.00) 3.00 (0.63) 3.02 (0.91) 48
3. Psychosocial characteristics of the mother
Satisfaction with her life in general 2.78 (1.48) 3.23 (1.09) 3.22 (0.83) 3.33 (0.98) 2.87 (1.36) 3.14 (0.90) 3.12 (1.09) 58
Low levels of psychological stress 2.50 (1.29) 3.20 (1.32) 3.56 (0.73) 3.15 (1.14) 3.13 (1.36) 2.71 (0.76) 3.12 (1.11) 51
Not overburdened with work 2.86 (1.55) 3.08 (1.08) 3.44 (0.88) 2.92 (1.19) 2.92 (1.19) 2.90 (1.20) 3.02 (1.10) 59
Ability to put child's needs before her own needs or desires 3.60 (0.89) 3.38 (0.96) 3.42 (0.79) 2.79 (0.80) 3.63 (0.74) 3.50 (0.55) 3.30 (0.85) 53
Good relationship with child's father 3.14 (0.69) 3.15 (0.99) 3.38 (0.74) 2.93 (1.21) 3.44 (0.53) 3.00 (0.58) 3.16 (0.87) 58
Absence of psychiatric problems (anxiety, depression, etc.) 3.00 (0.82) 3.18 (0.87) 3.33 (1.21) 3.07 (1.07) 3.38 (0.74) 3.43 (0.79) 3.22 (0.91) 50
Enterprising, non-fatalistic attitude 3.33 (1.21) 3.43 (0.79) 2.80 (1.64) 3.50 (0.52) 2.33 (1.58) 3.25 (0.50) 3.12 (1.14) 43
Positive attitude towards child (child of desired sex) 3.75 (0.46) 3.42 (0.67) 3.67 (0.52) 3.07 (0.92) 3.11 (1.27) 3.17 (0.75) 3.33 (0.84) 55
Positive attitude (child born at desired time) 3.13 (0.64) 2.73 (1.35) 1.57 (1.13) 3.23 (0.83) 3.11 (0.93) 3.00( 0.58) 2.85 (1.06) 55
Less practice of favouritism or discrimination against Female child 2.75 (0.50) 3.75 (0.45) 1.75 (1.67) 2.64 (1.21) 2.56 (1.59) 3.00 (0.71) 2.80 (1.29) 49
Maturity: 20 years old or more 3.20 (1.30) 2.82 (1.25) 2.63 (1.06) 3.08 (0.10) 2.70 (1.42) 2.85 (0.69) 2.88 (1.11) 53
Life-stage: not older than 35 1.29 (1.11) 2.40 (1.26) 2.50 (1.20) 1.67 (1.44) 2.33 (1.58) 3.00 (0.58) 2.17 (1.33) 53
Higher educational level 2.78 (1.30) 2.77 (1.09) 2.75 (1.28) 3.00 (1.04) 2.80 (1.40) 2.50 (0.55) 2.79 (1.12) 58
Higher natural intelligence 2.71 (1.50) 3.36 (0.80) 2.50 (1.52) 2.54 (1.39) 2.28 (1.50) 3.33 (0.82) 2.80 (1.28) 50
Greater contact with the world outside the home 2.43 (1.13) 2.69 (1.25) 2.17 (1.33) 2.77 (0.73) 2.10 (1.60) 3.14 (0.90) 2.57 (1.17) 56
4. Preventive health care
Attention to hygiene and sanitary conditions of child's environment 3.33 (1.00) 3.50 (1.17) 3.78 (0.44) 3.53 (0.64) 3.30 (1.34) 3.29 (0.49) 3.47 (0.90) 62
Greater use of modern preventive health services (e.g. pre-natal care, immunization) 3.30 (1.06) 3.46 (1.13) 3.40 (1.08) 3.43 (0.94) 3.00 (1.63) 3.14 (0.69) 3.31 (1.10) 64
Less use of traditional preventive measures (e.g. charms, amulets) 2.29 (1.38) 2.36 (1.50) 2.50 (1.51) 2.43 (1.74) 1.86 (1.57) 2.60 (1.14) 2.35 (1.48) 52
Less practice of dietary taboos 1.70 (1.49) 2.81 (1.53) 2.88 (1.55) 2.92 (1.56) 2.50 (1.71) 2.71 (0.76) 2.59 (1.50) 58
5. Curative health care                
Prompt visit to modem health services 3.00 (1.34) 2.69 (1.44) 3.63 (1.06) 3.14 (1.29) 2.70 (1.42) 3.14 (0.90) 3.02 (1.28) 63
Continuing to seek help until child recovered 3.00 (1.07) 2.87 (1.36) 3.71 (0.49) 3.46 (0.66) 3.00 (1.25) 3.00 (0.82) 3.19 (0.98) 53
Fewer visits to traditional healers 2.00 (1.41) 2.10(1.60) 2.08 (1.93) 2.54 (1.45) 1.90 (1.37) 2.50 (0.58) 2.17 (1.45) 52
Continuing to give prescribed care and medication throughout the illness 3.00 (1.22) 3.25 (1.22) 3.25 (1.39) 3.15 (1.07) 2.90 (1.37) 3.00 (0.82) 3.11 (1.15) 55
Fewer home remedies 1.67 (0.82) 1.63 (1.30) 3.00 (1.41) 2.38 (1.56) 2.11 (1.45) 2.20 (0.84) 2.20 (1.35) 49
Fewer restrictions on diet during illness 3.11 (1.27) 3.25 (1.22) 3.50 (0.76) 2.75 (1.36) 3.50 (0.93) 3.20 (0.83) 3.19 (1.12) 54
Mother stays with sick child - does not leave with others when sick 3.29 (0.76) 2.88 (0.64) 3.71 (0.75) 3.08 (0.97) 3.00 (1.05) 3.33 (0.82) 3.18 (0.87) 50
6. Characteristics of other caretakers
Mature, at least 15 years old 2.17 (1.72) 3.38 (0.74) 3.38 (0.91) 3.17 (0.58) 3.33 (1.32) 3.00 (0.71) 3.13 (1.04) 48
Experienced in child care 2.00 (1.73) 3.17 (0.19) 3.38 (0.91) 2.92 (1.19) 3.20 (1.23) 3.17 (0.75) 3.00 (1.22) 56
Better educated 1.71 (1.60) 2.77 (1.24) 2.38 (1.41) 2.93 (1.14) 2.22 (1.20) 2.50 (1.38) 2.51 (1.30) 57
Less burdened by other tasks 3.17 (1.33) 2.83 (1.33) 3.00 (0.89) 2.91 (1.00) 2.50 (1.51) 3.00 (0.90) 2.86 (1.17) 52
7. Father's role
Living at home 2.13 (1.73) 3.22 (1.09) 2.83 (0.98) 3.56 (0.53) 1.75 (1.39) 3.17 (0.75) 2.78 (1.28) 46
One wife only 3.33 (1.00) 3.62 (0.51) 3.38 (1.06) 3.69 (0.48) 3.20 (0.92) 3.43 (0.79) 3.47 (0.77) 60
Providing financial support for child 3.47 (0.77) 3.33 (1.00) 3.61 (0.51) 3.37 (1.06) 3.69 (0.48) 3.20 (0.92) 3.43 (0.79) 60
Better educated 2.89(1.45) 2.77(1.09) 2.63(1.51) 3.08(0.95) 2.11(1.17) 3.00(0.82) 2.76(1.17) 59
8. Family size/structure                
Children separated by birth interval of at least three years 3.50 (0.53) 3.50 (0.67) 3.00 (1.41) 3.00 (0. 91) 3.40 (0.84) 3.29 (0.76) 3.30 (0.82) 54
Not more than four children 2.33 (1.86) 3.63 (0.50) 3.25 (0.96) 3.18 (0.98) 3 27 (0.79) 3.33 (0.52) 3.22 (0.98) 49
Higher ratio of adults to young children 2.57 (1.62) 2.20 (1.03) 2.80 (1.64) 2.60 (0.97) 2.57 (1.40) 2.33 (1.03) 2.49 (1.20) 45
Presence of siblings old enough to help mother 2.71 (1.60) 2.30(1.49) 1.83 (1.47) 2.17(0 94) 2.44 (1.24) 2.00 (1.27) 2.26 (1.27) 50
9. Family attitudes
No preference for male and older family members in distribution of food 2.60 (1.35) 2.83 (1.40) 2.83 (1.83) 2.77 (1.36) 3.09 (1.13) 3.33 (0.52) 2.89 (1.29) 58
Recognition of special nutritional needs of young child 3.20 (1.23) 3.08 (1.50) 4.00 (0.00) 3.14 (1.10) 3.38 (1.19) 3.14 (0.90) 3.26 (1.15) 58
Ambitions for child to receive post primary education 257 (1.62) 2.69 (1.38) 2.25 (1.71) 3.08 (0.10) 2.30 (1.25) 2.85 (0.69) 2.68 (1.26) 53
Ambition for child to succeed in modern occupation 2.63 (1.77) 2.64 (1.29) 2.50 (1.73) 2.67 (0.98) 2.20 (1.48) 3.00 (0.82) 2.60 (1.29) 52
10. Household resources
Significant hidden/intangible resources (given the low socio-economic status of the family) 3.29 (1.50) 3.08 (1.12) 3.67 (0.58) 2.56 (1.13) 2.33 (1.73) 3.33 (0.52) 2.94 (1.26) 47
Greater access to community services 3.56 (1.01) 3.33 (0.65) 3.00 (1.55) 3.62 (0.51) 2.78 (1.30) 2.71 (0.95) 3.23 (0.99) 56
Presence of informal social network whose support the mother can draw upon 3.44 (1.01) 3.15 (1.14) 1.80 (1.30) 3.40 (0.70) 2.90 (1.19) 3.29 (0.76) 3.09 (1.09) 54
Small amounts of supplemental income earned by enterprising mother 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
B. GENETIC AND PHYSIOLOGICAL FACTORS
1. Maternal nutritional status
Height 2.63 (1.30) 2.90 (1.45) 2.20 (1.30) 2.85 (1.46) 2.00 (1.49) 2.67 (0.82) 2.58 (1.35) 52
Pre-pregnancy weight-for-height 2.20 (1.64) 3.18 (0.87) 3.00 (1.41) 2.90 (1.22) 3.14 (0.90) 3.20 (0.89) 2.98 (1.13) 46
Weight gain during pregnancy 2.80 (1.64) 3.18 (1.33) 3.17 (1.17) 3.17 (1.03) 2.63 (0.92) 2.80 (1.30) 3.00 (1.16) 47
Weight-for-height during lactation 2.60 (1.67) 2.50 (1.43) 2.67 (1.37) 2.80 (0.92) 3.22 (0.83) 3.33 (0.82) 2.85 (1.15) 46
Female obesity (contributing protective effect to infant nutrition in some societies) 0.75 (1.50) 1.33 (1.51) 2.75 (1.26) 2.00 (1.35) 1.88 (1.25) 2.00 (1.87) 1.82 (1.43) 39
Iron status 1.83 (2.04) 3.11 (0.93) 3.14 (1.22) 2.78 (1.39) 3.14 (1.07) 3.33 (0.52) 2.92 (1.27) 44
2. Dietary intake during pregnancy
Calories 3.14 (1.46) 3.63 (0.75) 3.25 (1.17) 3.55 (0.93) 3.38 (0.74) 3.67 (0.51) 3.44 (0.94) 48
Protein 2.20 (0.64) 3.00 (1.31) 4.00 (0.00) 3.00 (1.09) 2.75 (1.39) 3.67 (0.52) 3.13 (1.19) 46
Iron 2.80 (1.64) 3.25 (0.70) 3.43 (1.13) 3.36 (0.67) 3.14 (0.90) 3.50 (0.55) 3.27 (0.90) 44
Folate 2.40 (1.52) 3.00 (0.76) 2.71 (1.25) 3 3.50 (0.84) 3.33 (0.82) 3.00 (1.02) 43
3. Dietary intake during lactation
Calories 3.50 (1.41) 3.57 (0.79) 3.17 (0.98) 3.60 (0.70) 3.75 (0.46) 3.67 (0.52) 3.56 (0.84) 45
Protein 2.67 (1.75) 3.25 (1.04) 3.67 (0.82) 3.10 (1.10) 3.71 (0.49) 3.50 (0.55) 3.30 (1.04) 43
Iron 2.57 (1.62) 3.25 (0.89) 3.17 (1.17) 2.80 (1.03) 3.57 (0.79) 3.33 (0.52) 3.09 (1.05) 44
Folate 2.86 (1.46) 3.00 (0.82) 3.00 (1.10) 2.60 (1.07) 3.57 (0.79) 3.00 (0.89) 2.98 (1.08) 43
Fluids 2.67 (1.75) 3.00 (1.10) 3.43 (0.79) 3.30 (0.95) 3.25 (0.89) 2.67 (0.82) 3.09 (1.04) 43
4. Child characteristics
Birth weight (large or average weight for-date) 3.13 (1.36) 3.40 (0.84) 3.38 (0.74) 2.92 (1.19) 3.67 (0.50) 3.00 (0.82) 3.24 (0.96) 55
Normal gestational age (38-42 weeks) 3.12 (1.36) 3.50 (0.71) 3.22 (0.67) 3.25 (0.87) 3.63 (0.52) 3.43 (0.79) 3.35 (0.83) 54
Absence of complication/stress during pregnancy 3.00 (1.41) 3.56 (0.53) 3.71 (0.49) 3.08 (0.52) 3.33 (0.71) 3.33 (0.52) 3.32 (0.74) 50
Age supplementary food started 3.60 (1.27) 3.50 (0.76) 2.88 (1.36) 2.75 (1.42) 3.60 (0.52) 2.67 (1.21) 3.19 (1.17) 54
Age breast-feeding stopped 3.20 (1.23) 2.89 (1.36) 2.78 (1.09) 3.38 (0.87) 2.50 (1.51) 3.14 (0.90) 3.00 (1.17) 58
Age other milk stopped 2.20 (1.48) 2.25 (1.39) 2.50 (1.20) 2.70 (1.06) 1.20 (1.32) 3.00 (0.82) 2.27 (1.30) 48
Calories in supplementary food 3.50 (1.27) 3.56 (0.53) 3.43 (0.79) 3.72 (0.65) 3.20 (1.05) 3.00 (0.90) 3.43 (0.89) 53
Protein in supplementary food 2.25 (1.67) 3.00 (1.22) 3.22 (1.09) 3.45 (0.93) 3.00 (0.93) 2.71 (0.90) 2.98 (1.16) 52
Lower than average activity level 2.00 (1.58) 2.14 (1.36) 2.67 (1.22) 2.67 (1.22) 1.89 (1.62) 3.17 (0.98) 2.42 (1.32) 45
Greater than average stress tolerance 1.75 (1.71) 2.86 (1.22) 2.40 (1.14) 3.38 (1.19) 2.86 (1.46) 3.17 (0.75) 2.83 (1.26) 37
Lower than average caloric requirement 2.00 (1.15) 2.29 (1.11) 1.80 (1.64) 2.20 (1.40) 2.71 (1.60) 2.14 (1.45) 2.25 (1.35) 40
Lower than average protein requirement 2.00 (1.00) 2.00 (0.71) 1.50 (1.73) 1.78 (1.20) 2.50 (1.64) 1.67 (1.21) 1.49 (1.22) 35
5. Child's resistance to infections
Diarrhoeal 4.00 (0.00) 3.55 (0.69) 3.88 (0.35) 3.86 (0.36) 3.33 (1.32) 4.00 (0.00) 3.76 (0.65) 59
Respiratory 3.71 (0.49) 3.70 (0.67) 3.86 (0.38) 3.75 (0.45) 3.56 (1.33) 2.85 (0.38) 3.73 (0.69) 52
Parasitic 3.78 (0.67) 3.09 (0.94) 3.20 (0.45) 3.23 (1.01) 2.50 (1.60) 3.71 (0.76) 3.25 (1.03) 53
Measles 3.78 (0.44) 3.50 (0.97) 3.50 (0.58) 3.18 (0.98) 3.00 (1.85) 3.86 (0.38) 3.45 (1.02) 49

Table G. Summary of observations, suggestions, and comments from the questionnaire

    Country/culture Setting
  Factors to be included in the study of positive deviance
1. Mother-child interactions Excessive crying by the child N. India Rural and urban
Unusually dull child    
Normal power of extremities of the child Taiwan Urban
Normal growth of teeth of the child which will affect feeding interactions    
Observations and comments    
Koran says mothers should breast-feed their children up to two years and should be with their babies for a prolonged period Kenya (Bantus) Rural
Negative practice of abrupt separation of child from mother in another village at time of weaning needs to be changed Lesotho Rural
Wealthier families do not necessarily have healthier children. Food with love and support is most important Nepal (Brahmin) Rural
Factors to be included in the study of positive deviance
2. Maternal psychosocial characteristics Mother's perception of etiology of illness in relation to nutrition Mexico (Mitla, Zapotec) Town
Supplies child with all available titbits    
Mother's awareness of issues concerning child nutrition Turkey Urban
Extent of protectiveness of mothers toward children S. India Rural
Working mother N. India  
Stepmother    
Mother's extent of contact outside house; non-professional women with greater contacts outside home may neglect their children Turkey  
Self-sacrificing attitude of the mother important Taiwan Moderately developed
Observations and comments
P.D. mothers have no food taboos for themselves or their children Nepal (Tamang.

Newar)

Rural
Mothers who practiced the custom of massaging the child with oil and then exposing them to sunlight tended to have healthier children Bangladesh Rural
Mother sacrifices everything she can afford for her child Papua New Guinea Rural
Breast-feeding can continue for three years (Kewabi)  
Mother commonly obeys food taboos on many protein foods and avoids sexual intercourse while lactating Papua New Guinea (Saniyo, Hiyowe) Rural
Factors to be included in the study of positive deviance
3. Parental and caretaker characteristics Absence of chronic illness in fathers Papua New Guinea (Saniyo, Hiyowe) Rural
Relationship of father to child

Influence of grandparents in child feeding and rearing

Mexico Mixed
Parents ambition for the child to have higher status than themselves in the society Greece Urban
Influence of grandparents US/Mexican American Urban
Role of grandparents Argentina (Criolla)  
Type of family: extended v. nuclear    
Geographic stability of the parents    
Early biography of mother and father    
Former traumatic experiences of the parents    
Father's health - absence of prolonged illnesses N. India  
Non-discrimination against child's sex    
Less belief in old customs by parents    
Caretaker's status in home    
Personal gains of caretaker    
Father's interest and knowledge of proper infant feeding methods Philippines Urban
Caretaker's interest/knowledge of proper infant feeding methods    
Observation
Fathers of North Chinese Province, regardless of the wife's origin (mainlander or Taiwanese), had babies with greater appetite that grew well Taiwan Moderately developed
Factors to be included in the study of positive deviance
4. Family size, household structure, socio-economic status Children spaced at least two years apart Papua New

Guinea (Motu)

Rural
Number of children in a family. Fourth and following children are at a disadvantage. First child is also at a disadvantage due to young age of the mother. Second and third child has a positive advantage Turkey  
Adequate living space in the house per family member Taiwan Urban
Socio-economic factors at the macro-and micro-level are the most important determinants, especially family's access to means of production if rural and employment if urban Cameroon Rural
Adequate financial resources N. India  
Careful distribution of household resources and setting of priorities

concerning children are important

St. Kitts Nevis Rural
Nuclear v. extended family S. India

(S. Kanenese)

Rural
Observations and comments
One family, one child policy of Chinese government will affect child- care issues in China and increase parents receptiveness to health programmes People's Republic of China Rural
According to their research, mothers of positive deviants had mean parity of 4-8 while mothers of malnourished had 6-8 Haiti Rural
Factors to be included in the study of positive deviance
5. Community health

social services

Improved water supply Kenya (Bantus) Rural
Clean reliable source of water S. India Rural
Observations and comments    
Mothering is perceived as woman's most important role and new St. Kitts Nevis Rural
mothers are supported and exempted from performing normal chores    
Factors to be included in the study of positive deviance
6. Maternal physical and nutritional characteristics Intake of calcium during pregnancy Taiwan Urban
Avoidance of sleeping drugs    
Mother's hygiene Mexico (Mitla. Zapotec) Town
Negative effect of using drugs, especially anticonvulsants and antibiotics taken by the mother during pregnancy Turkey  
7. Child's physical and nutritional characteristics Breast-feeding Papua New Guinea (Motu) Rural
Introduction of solids at 4-6 months    
Regular three meals and snacks    
Breast-feeding for longer than nine months important because of scarcity of milk Zambia Rural
Good supplemental feeding/weaning patterns Philippines Cebu)  
Eating wholesome local diet rather than less nutritious new and modern foods Nepal (Newer. Brahmin) Rural
Child is at disadvantage if (1) primarily breast-fed for longer than 7 months; (2) never breast-fed.    
Advantageous to begin proper supplementary foods at four months    
Observation
Female children under three years are superior in weight-for-age and weight-for-height than male children Peru (Andean) Rural

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