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1. Introduction: emerging issues in natural resource and human development policy
1. Changing trends in social and economic
development policy
2. Development policy, social transformation and
resource systems
3. Impact of international and national
development activities on renewable resources
4. Natural resource transformation and regional
development planning
5. Renewable resource transformation in small
group and household economies
6. Transforming natural resources for human
development: implications for research,
planning and policy
In each generation age-old problems and issues reappear in new form, often more complex and less amenable to solution than in their previous forms. Their persistent reemergence testifies to man's inability to understand and solve completely most of the social and physical problems that have plagued him since earliest times. Indeed, apparent solutions to some problems have either worsened the effects of these problems or created new and more complicated difficulties. The rapidity of change and the frequency of human intervention in social and natural resource systems over the past half century have complicated man's world enormously. New scientific discoveries and the expansion of human knowledge have revealed new complexities that make comprehensive solutions to social and physical problems appear to be less certain.
The pursuit of "development" has been one of the most important attempts to reorder social and physical conditions during this century. This ill-defined and ever changing concept underlies policies that have raised the living standards of millions of people in many countries; but the same policies have worsened the conditions of millions of others and introduced changes in big-physical systems that could adversely affect the planet's entire population. Manifestations of some of those adversities have led development planners and policy-makers to reconsider previous definitions of development, to reexamine the relationships between patterns of human behaviour and the dynamics of natural resource systems. and to give greater attention to preserving and using more wisely the environment and natural resources on which human development - no matter how it is defined - ultimately depends.
The alarums raised during the past few years over environmental degradation and destruction of natural resources in the pursuit of development- the benefits of which have accrued to only a small minority of the world's population - have led many to conclude that economic development and preservation of the natural environment are incompatible goals. But increasing evidence suggests that this conclusion may not be entirely accurate. Nor is it widely acceptable to much of the world's population that has benefited from social and economic changes, or to many of those that have not. A more accurate and increasingly acceptable conclusion is that some development policies are indeed detrimental to environmental quality and natural resources, but that others have created opportunities for large numbers of people to improve their standards of living in ways that are compatible with, complementary to, or capable of enhancing the natural resource base. The form development takes, and the way policies are designed and carried out, determine the effects on a country's natural resource systems.
The way in which natural resources have been used in many industrialized and developing nations in the past has made the potential adversities and dangers to natural resource systems clearer in recent years, and both international development organizations and governments in developing countries have begun to reassess their approaches to development. Growing awareness of the complex relationships between social and economic development and big-physical systems has led to demands for more effective methods of analyzing natural resources and the potential impacts of development policies on them.
The increasing awareness of, and growing demand for, change in the way governments use natural resources have come at the same time that concepts and definitions of social and economic development are undergoing fundamental re-evaluation. Thus, many of the relationships between natural resource use and approaches to human development have become clearer, and the difficulties and complexities of solving the problems inherent in those relationships have become more apparent.
Various United Nations agencies now focus their research and technical assistance on clarifying and attempting to generate solutions to problems of human and natural resource development. This book is the first in a series of monographs sponsored by the United Nations University's Programme on the Use and Management of Natural Resources that explores issues in resource systems theory and methodology. It is concerned with methods of transforming natural resources for human development, approaches that can both generate greater economic growth with social equity and protect and enhance the natural resource base on which social and economic progress depend. The purposes of this book are (1 ) to review recent changes in development theories and policies that seek economic growth with greater social equity; (2) to explore the relationships between human development policies and natural resource systems, especially in marginal areas where large numbers of the population live in poverty; (3) to offer a resource systems framework for planning and implementing transformational development; and (4) to examine activities that need to be undertaken to increase the capacity of international organizations and governments in developing countries to use a resource systems framework in planning development strategies and assessing development policies.
1. Changing trends in social and economic development policy
The increasing concern with using natural resources more effectively has been reinforced by changing perceptions of development. As is noted in Chapter II, when development theories were evolving in the 1940s and 1950s they sought to maximize economic growth, industrial output and export production through capital intensive investment strategies that largely disregarded questions of distribution and assumed that benefits would trickle down to poor countries and to poor groups within developing countries. Those natural resources that could be transformed for productive purposes were heavily exploited without concern for their preservation and renewal, and without regard for the physical, social or economic consequences of their depletion or destruction.
When it became clear during the 1960s that such policies had not ameliorated widespread poverty in developing nations and, indeed, seemed to broaden the gap between rich and poor nations and between the wealthy elite and the poverty-stricken majority in most developing countries, the attention of officials in some developing nations and in international development agencies turned to breaking the "bottlenecks" to Western-style development in poor countries by transferring institutions, technologies and concepts from industrialized nations. There was little concern, however, for differences in cultural, political, social or economic conditions that made the transfer of many methods and approaches inappropriate. Most important, the sectoral development policies pursued in many developing nations during the 1960s ignored the fact that preconditions for Western-style development did not exist and often could not be created. Most poor countries have agricultural economies with large numbers of people living at or near subsistence levels. The exploitation and export of natural resources generated few benefits for the poor in developing countries, especially for those living in marginal areas, where low levels of income inhibited the expansion of internal demand for agricultural and industrial goods.
In the few countries in which conventional strategies worked effectively, governments pursued policies that assured more equitable distribution of income and wealth and widespread participation in productive activities. They undertook meaningful land reforms, prevented large disparities in urban and rural wages, provided agricultural incentives and price supports for farm goods, distributed physical infrastructure and social services widely in rural areas, encouraged family planning and population controls, and placed strong emphasis on human resource development through education and training so that a large majority of the population could participate in economic activities.
The failures of conventional development strategies in most developing countries, however, and the modifications needed in those countries where they were successful, led development theorists and practitioners to reassess conventional concepts and approaches to development during the 1970s. It became clear that the greatest obstacle or bottleneck to development in nearly all developing countries was the large number of people living at or near subsistence levels who did not participate in the productive economy. The productivity, income, purchasing power and access to productive resources of the "poor majority" would have to be increased as a condition for sustained development. "Top-down" and centrally-conceived and implemented development policies would have to be supplemented by far stronger forces from the "bottom up" to expand and diversify rural economies. Economic growth with social equity requires human resource development; it requires strategies for meeting the basic needs of the poor in order to increase their skills, entrepreneurship and productive capacity. A key to equitable growth in countries where it has occurred has been to steadily increase the access of the poor to social services, facilities and physical infrastructure as well as to other productive assets that would lead to higher productivity, higher incomes and stronger internal demand for the goods and services that stimulate sustained development.
It became equally apparent that careful transformation of natural resources - in ways that do not destroy or severely deplete those that are renewable - is essential for sustained development, especially in marginal regions.
2. Development policy, social transformation and resource systems
New perceptions of the role of natural resources, and especially of renewable resources, in meeting basic needs and increasing the productivity and income of the poor emerged with new perceptions of socio-economic development. It became more apparent during the past decade that closer attention must be paid to preserving and renewing bio-physicai systems and to transforming resources for human development. Both resources and patterns of living must be transformed to meet the needs of the human population in developing countries during the rest of this century. Special attention must be given to marginal areas, where human poverty and environmental degradation coincide and reinforce each other.
Chapter III of this book examines the changing perceptions of the roles of renewable resources in human development and focuses on the importance of resource transformation in marginal areas. The characteristics of marginal regions are identified and the concept of transformational development is discussed. The potential for transformational approaches to the development of renewable resources is illustrated with the case of the palm sago industry in Southeast Asia.
Of crucial importance to any attempt to use natural resources more effectively in socio-economic development, and to improve the capacity of governments to assess the potential impacts of alternative development policies on natural resource systems, is a better understanding of environmental and resource conditions. The complex interactions within and among resource systems is illustrated in Chapter III by the case of coastal zones. Similar interactions appear within and among all resource systems and, thus, a resource systems framework is needed to improve the quality of research, analysis, planning, policy formulation and implementation of development programmes and projects.
A resource systems framework that depicts the major relationships among biological and physical factors, elements of actual resource systems, relationships among resource systems, the political economy, social organization and demographic characteristics is offered in Chapter 111. The "vertical" relationships at macro, meso and micro levels within developing nations are also examined in detail. The "macro level" includes the international economic, political and institutional influences on how developing countries perceive. transform and use natural resources, and the natural resource assemblage in the biological and physical environment of developing nations. At the "meso-level", resource systems are viewed in spatial context; regional analysis must be concerned with the interactions and linkages among resource systems within defined geographical areas, the impact of development projects on regional resources, and the relationships between human settlement patterns and resource use and transformation. At the "micro-level," resource use and transformation must be viewed through the decision making processes of small group and household economies.
3. Impact of international and national development activities on renewable resources
A systems perspective of natural resources illustrates vividly that the use and transformation of resources at any level of interaction - international, national, regional or local is influenced by decisions at all other levels. in many marginal areas of developing countries, for example, the ways in which individuals, households and communities use resources depends not only on their own perceptions, cultural traditions, immediate needs and circumstances, and organizational capacity, but also on the physical characteristics of the region in which they live, on decisions about the location of services and infrastructure and on the regional pattern of human settlement. Moreover, opportunities and constraints to use or develop regional resources are often shaped by national development policies, decisions within central government ministries about the allocation of investments among regions, and decisions about location of programmes and projects within regions. National decisions are in turn shaped by international economic, political and social forces, by the policies of international funding institutions and by trends in international markets for the goods produced by developing countries. In turn, the success of national and regional development policies often depends heavily on individual and household behaviour within local communities.
Although it is rarely possible to describe and analyse completely, let alone plan and control comprehensively, all of the interactions in resource systems, a better understanding of their characteristics and dynamics is needed to plan strategically and to introduce incrementally more effective and appropriate development policies. In Chapter IV, the impacts of international economic forces on the resource policies of developing countries are illustrated by increasing petroleum costs during the 1970s and on natural resource systems by the pollution of marine waters by petroleum hydrocarbons. The detrimental impacts of some national development policies on resource systems are also visible in the forestry practices of many countries in Southeast Asia.
4. Natural resource transformation and regional development planning
Regions within developing countries often differ drastically in their states of development, cultural, ethnic, social and economic conditions, physical characteristics and in the configuration of their natural resource systems. Some ecosystems, such as coastal zones and river basins, form distinctive regions. It cannot be assumed, therefore, that uniform or standardized development policies will have similar impacts in all areas of developing countries. National development policies must be tailored to the particular needs and conditions of specific regions and communities if they are to be effective.
Thus, regional analysis and planning are essential elements of national development policy-making. As is noted in Chapter V, "meso-level" planning is necessary not only because regions differ from each other, but also because elements of resource systems within regions are inextricably linked. Interventions in one part of the system affect all others. Ecosystems within regions can be damaged or threatened by inappropriate decisions about the design and location of development projects such as dams, reservoirs, irrigation schemes and other forms of physical infrastructure. Similarly, better understanding of such systems can lead to design and location decisions that enhance and expand the resource base in developing regions.
Moreover, the close relationships among patterns of human settlement, natural resource use and transformation and the pace and direction of development are becoming more apparent. The pattern of human settlement is especially important in marginal areas, where unarticulated and unintegrated settlements can limit rural people's access to the services, facilities, and assets needed to increase their incomes and productive capacities. Often the settlement pattern in marginal areas reinforces resource exploitation or inhibits the transformation of renewable resources in ways that can sustain and improve the livelihoods of their populations.
Regional planning provides a geographical focus through which to analyse the complex interactions between and within social and natural resource systems and through which to link the activities of various sectoral agencies. The United Nations Secretary-General, in a report to the U.N. Economic and Social Council, has pointed out that:
Improving the linkages between development processes and sectors ensures an environmentally sound distribution of existing concentrations of population, human settlements and economic activities, and facilitates effective and equitable resource use. The concept of distribution must be placed in a dynamic context. Shifts in population and human settlement patterns are necessary for increased productivity in agriculture, industrialization and realizing socioeconomic and environmental improvements. At the same time such shifts can be characterized by a number of lags, so that the process of spatial transition often gives rise to imbalances between the rates of sectoral, population and economic growth, inefficient distribution of population in relation to resources and technical capacities, glaring spatial and social inequities in income and development levels and incapacity of institutions and resources to cope with changing demands and complexities of urbanization.1
The manifestation of these problems in many developing countries has led both national governments and international agencies to revise development policies in recent years to seek more geographically-balanced patterns of urbanization. In Chapter V, methodologies for integrated regional development planning and for spatial analysis are discussed, and their application in the Bicol River Basin of the Philippines is reviewed and analyzed.
5. Renewable resource transformation in small group and household economies
Ultimately, in every society, decisions about how resources are used and transformed are made by large numbers of individuals, households and small groups. National and regional development policies are unlikely to be effective unless they reflect an understanding of individual and household behaviour. Micro-analysis is the foundation of a resource systems framework for development planning and policy-making.
In Chapter Vl, the need for micro-level analysis is described in more detail. Economic theory, on which many of the psychological and marketing models of human behavior are based, is often deficient or irrelevant in understanding the behaviour of the poor in developing countries. It is especially inappropriate in explaining how people in marginal regions perceive, use and transform the natural resources on which their livelihoods depend. Much more must be learned about their attitudes toward risk and uncertainty, about the dynamics of household economic behaviour and about the values and perceptions of the poor in marginal regions toward renewable resources. Conventional behavioural models that are often based on studies of decision-making in Western societies must be modified or replaced by studies of individual and household behaviour in developing societies.
An argument is made in Chapter Vl that local participation an ambiguous and overused term in development literatureis essential to understanding individual and household behaviour and to formulating policies and designing programmes and projects that will be appropriate and effective in marginal regions of developing countries. New procedures must be found to elicit the involvement of individuals, households and communities in the process of transformational development. And, equally important, new ways must be found to make local participation in policy analysis, planning, formulation and implementation more acceptable to national and regional decision-makers.
Finally, in Chapter Vll, suggestions are offered for improving the research, planning and policy analysis capabilities within governments of developing countries to transform natural resources for human development in ways that preserve and renew the resource base and that seek economic growth with greater social equity. Few governments now have the capacity to use effectively a resource systems framework such as that described in Chapter III.
In the long term, improving the effectiveness of governments and private organizations to transform natural resources for human development depends on: (1) increasing awareness in developing countries of the complex and multiple relationships between natural resources and socio-economic development; (2) strengthening administrative, institutional, and legal procedures for protecting the physical environment and for transforming natural resources in ways that stimulate human development; (3) expanding the research and data base for development planning and policy-making and strengthening the methodologies for applying the resource systems framework in policy analysis; and (4) building the educational and training capacity of public and private institutions in natural resource analysis and transformational planning.
Note
1. United Nations Economic and Social Council. Interrelationships Between Population, Resources. Environment and Development: Report of the Secrerary General, Document E/1981/5, (New York: United Nations, 1981), p 26