This is the old United Nations University website. Visit the new site at http://unu.edu

Food science

Production and nutritional quality of traditional Nigerian masa from mixtures of rice, pearl millet, cowpea, and groundnut
Use of a participatory learning process to develop a curriculum for postgraduate nutrition training

Production and nutritional quality of traditional Nigerian masa from mixtures of rice, pearl millet, cowpea, and groundnut

Materials and methods
Results and discussion
References

Iro Nkama and Nagappa G. Malleshi

Iro Nkama is affiliated with the Department of Food Science and Technology in the University of Maiduguri in Maiduguri, Borno State, Nigeria. Nagappa G. Malleshi is affiliated with the Department of Grain Science and Technology in the Central Food Technological Research Institute in Mysore, India.

Mention of the names of firms and commercial products does not imply endorsement by the United Nations University.

Abstract

Masa (waina) is a Nigerian yeast-fermented puff batter of millet or rice cooked in a pan with individual cuplike depressions. It resembles the Indian idli in shape and dosa in taste. Since masa is a single cereal food, its protein is of relatively poor nutritional quality. Studies were conducted to assess the feasibility of supplementing millet or rice with grain legumes for masa preparation. Based on a least-cost computer programme, masa formulations containing millet or rice blended with cowpea or groundnut were prepared and their chemical and nutritional qualities were evaluated. Phosphorus and calcium concentrations were low, and magnesium and sodium concentrations were high. Significant improvements in lysine (9%-75%), threonine (16%-25%), and isoleucine (10%-28%) were observed for some masa samples. The biological value (81%-93%), apparent digestibility (82%-88%), and net protein utilization (74%-79%) of all masa samples showed improved nutritional qualities. Supplemented masa was nutritionally better than masa made from millet or rice alone.

Introduction

Masa (waina) is a fermented puff batter of rice, millet, maize, or sorghum cooked in a pan with individual cuplike depressions. It resembles the Indian idli in shape and dosa in taste. It is different from the maize masa used in tortillas in Mexico and Central America. Masa is consumed in various forms by all age groups in the northern states of Nigeria and many other Sahelian African countries (Mali, Burkina Faso, Niger, Chad, and Ghana). It is the principal ingredient of a variety of cereal-based foods and is a good source of income for the women who prepare the traditional product for sale.

Protein-energy malnutrition has been identified as one of the most important problems in Africa [1]. Attempts have been made to devise strategies for combating this nutritional problem. Nutritious foods of high protein and energy value based on cereal-legume combinations have been suggested. In African countries, traditional foods, such as masa, play a critical role in the nutrition of the population [1-9]. Like other single-cereal-based foods, masa protein is deficient in the essential amino acid lysine. Grain legumes and oil seeds are higher in protein density and lysine. Therefore, a combination of cereals and grain legumes in traditional preparations of masa will have improved nutritive value. Moreover, it is a way of increasing grain legume consumption in Africa, as is done in India for dosa and idli [9].

The objective of this study was to evaluate the chemical and nutritional qualities of cereal-based masa.

Materials and methods

Materials

Milled raw rice (Oryza sativa L.), pearl millet (Pennisetum americanum), cowpea (Vigna unguiculata L.), groundnut (Arachis hypogea L.), and other ingredients-vegetable oil, sugar, salt, skim milk powder, starch, tamarind fruit pulp (Tamarindus indica L.), and active dried bakers yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) -were purchased in bulk from a local market in Mysore, Karnataka, India. Kanwa or trona (sodium sesquicarbonate) was purchased from a local market in Maiduguri, Borno State, Nigeria, and shipped by air to the Central Food Technological Research Institute in sealed polythene bags. Foreign matter was removed from the grain samples, which were then stored in a cold room at 8 ± 2°C. The salt mixture for animal feeding experiments was purchased from SISCO Research Laboratory, PVT, Bombay, India.

Preparation of samples

Raw rice flour and grits

Raw milled rice was cleaned to remove foreign matter, then ground in a plate mill to produce fine flour (rice flour sieved through a BS. No. 28 600-mm mesh sieve) and grits (coarse flour sieved through a BS No. 4 1.4 mm mesh sieve) (BS 410 Laboratory Test Sieves, Endicott Ltd., London).

Millet flour and grits

The millet sample was first cleaned and adjusted to 4% moisture. A sample was dehulled using a laboratory scale McGill No. 3 dehuller (Houston, Texas, USA). The dehulled millet was ground and sieved to produce flour and grits as described for rice. However, preliminary results on the use of local Indian pearl millet for masa preparation showed that the product had an unacceptably bitter aftertaste. Therefore, dehulled pearl millet grain was acidified by treatment with tamarind fruit pulp to improve the colour and taste. Tamarind fruit pulp (150 g) was macerated in 10 L of water, and the resulting mixture was filtered with a fine sieve to remove seeds and fibrous materials. Dehulled millet (9 kg) was soaked in the tamarind extract (pH 2.77) for 48 hours. The sample was washed with water, dried in the sun for about eight hours, cooled, and then ground and sieved into fine flour and grits as described for rice.

Roosted cowpea flour

The cowpea sample was soaked in water for four hours at room temperature, dried in the sun for eight hours, then cooled and dehulled using a hand-operated dahl dehuller (CFTRI, Mysore, India). The hulls were removed by aspiration and the dehulled cowpea was roasted in a 5-kg capacity Indlab electric roaster (Indlab Furnaces, Mysore, India) at about 120°C for 30 minutes. The roasted cowpeas were pulverized into fine flour using a plate mill with a BS No. 28 mesh sieve.

Roasted groundnut

The groundnut sample was cleaned and roasted for 75 minutes in the same roaster that was used for cowpea. It was then skinned by rubbing between the palms of the hands, and the skins were removed by aspiration. Roasted groundnut was pulverized into flour as described above for cowpea flour.

Trona (kanwa water)

Preliminary results showed that 5% kanwa concentration was optimum for masa preparation. A 5% kanwa water solution was prepared by dissolving 20 g of the salt in 400 nil of water. The resultant mixture was filtered through Whatman No. 4 filter paper to remove suspended material. A 20-ml aliquot of this solution was used for 250 g masa batter in all preparations. This quantity of kanwa water was always adjusted based on the quantity of the batter to be cooked.

Formulation of masa flour blends

The criteria used for selecting the cereal-legume combination were based on Food and Agriculture Organization/World Health Organization/UNU [10] specifications of the daily protein and energy requirements for people of different ages, sexes, and levels of physical exertion. According to these standards, one-fifth of the total requirement was considered to be obtained at breakfast, since masa is a common breakfast food [9]. Linear programming was used to work out nutritionally optimum least-cost combinations from the following list of raw materials, with certain imposed constraints apart from satisfying the nutritional requirements: rice, millet, cowpea, groundnut, groundnut cake, soya bean, soya flour, and oil. The combinations selected are listed in table 1. Because oil is used in the final stages of cooking masa, it was eliminated during the computation of proportions of other raw materials. Nutritionally optimum formulations were determined for the five classes based on age.

Table 1. Masa formulations and a typical recipe (for 1,000 g)^a

Formulation	Rice		Millet		Cowpea flour	Groundnut flour
	Grits	Flour	Grits	Flour
Rice (100%)	332	668	-	-	-
Millet (100%)	-	-	332	668	-
Rice-cowpea (80:20)	332	468	-		200	-
Rice- cowpea- groundnut (80:8:12)	332	468	-		80	120
Millet-cowpea (83:17)	-	-	332	538	130	-
Rice-millet-cowpea (36:58:6)	166	260	166	337	71	-

a. Typical recipe for masa preparation: grits, 332 g; flour, 668 g; yeast, 3 g; sugar, 20 g; salt, 20 g; kanwa, 80 ml; water, 2,800 ml.

Laboratory preparation of masa

Masa was prepared as described in figure 1. The proportions of ingredients (grits, flour, yeast, water, sugar, salt, and kanwa water) for the different formulations are given in table 1, along with a typical recipe. All masa samples used for animal-feeding experiments were prepared as detailed in the recipe. Fermentation was carried out for about 10 hours. All samples were allowed to ferment at room temperature (30 ± 2°C). For animal-feeding experiments and chemical analysis, representative samples of masa formulations were cut into small pieces and freeze-dried before being pulverized into flour.

Chemical analysis

Moisture, crude protein, crude fat, and ash contents of samples were determined according to AACC methods 44-15A, 46-11A, 30-25, and 08-01, respectively [11]. Carbohydrate content was calculated by difference. Lead, copper, zinc, cadmium, chromium, iron, magnesium, manganese, and sodium contents of samples and kanwa were determined by atomic absorption (Perkin Elmer 460) using an air acetylene flame [12]. Phosphorus content was determined colourimetrically, and calcium content was determined by a titrimetric method [13].

Amino acid determination

For amino acid analysis, 200 to 250 mg of masa samples were hydrolysed with 5 ml of 6 N HCl (redistilled) at 110°C for 24 hours. The hydrolysate was filtered (Whatman No. 2) into a 50-ml flask and lyophilized in a freeze dryer. The dried sample was subsequently dissolved in 3 ml of water and again lyophilized. This was repeated three times to remove traces of HCl. The final dried sample was dissolved in about 2.0 ml of water.

An aliquot based on the total amino acids of the sample was taken (5 ml of 2.5 mmol), determined as alanine, and dried in a vacuum. The sample was redried using 25 ml of ethanol:triethylamine:water (2:2:1) and 20 ml of derivatizing solution, ethanol:triethylamine: water:phenylisothiocyanate (7:1:1:1). The sample was incubated at room temperature for 25 minutes, and then excess reagent was removed by drying under vacuum. It was then analysed by reverse-phase high-performance liquid chromatography (RP-HPLC) in an amino acid column (Water Associate System, Column Pico Tag) with sodium acetate buffer and acetonitrile. Amino acids were detected at 254 nm by analysis with a Shimadzu CR4A Chromatopac. The standard used was Pierce H. amino acid hydrolysate.

Amino acids were calculated from the peak areas as follows: Amino acids (pmol) = (Area of unknown amino acid/Area of standard amino acid) × 312.5 (or 156.2 for cysteine).

Animal-feeding experiments

The apparent net protein utilization (NPU), biological value (BV), and apparent digestibility of rice and millet masa and formulated cereal-legume masa blends at 10% protein level with mineral and vitamin fortification (table 2) were determined according to the methods of Pellett and Young [16].

For nitrogen-balance studies, five groups of eight male albino (Wistar strain) rats weighing about 57 g were housed in individual metabolic cages fitted with steel funnels and perforated discs to facilitate separate collection of faeces and urine. Water and food moistened with hot water were given ad libitum. Carmine (0.2%) was used as a faecal marker [17] at the beginning and end of the six-day experimental period. Thymol crystals and toluene (5 ml) were added to the urine bottles as preservatives. The faeces were freeze-dried and the urine was pooled together, the volumes of the faeces and urine were recorded, and both faeces and urine were analysed for nitrogen content [11]. The apparent biological value and apparent protein digestibility were assessed by the method of Pellett and Young [16] using the following formulas:

Apparent BV = [(N intake - FN - UN)/N intake] × 100

Apparent digestibility = [(N intake - FN)/N intake] × 100

Apparent NPU = [(N intake - FN - UN)/N intake] or (BV × TD)/100

Where

FN = faecal nitrogen and UN = urinary nitrogen.

These equations were used because correction was not made for obligatory losses; therefore, the calculation gave the apparent BV, digestibility, and NPU [16-18].

Table 2. Composition of experimental diets of cooked masa (g/100 g)

Dietary groupa	Test material (%)	Vitaminized oilb (%)	Vitaminized starchc (%)	Salt mixtured (%)	Corn starch (%)	Oil (%)	Total (%)
Rice masa	96.0	1.0	1.0	2.0	-	-	100
Millet masa	96.0	1.0	1.0	2.0	-	-	100
Rice-cowpea masa	96.0	1.0	1.0	2.0	-	-	100
Rice- cowpea-groundnut masa	88.0	1.0	1.0	2.0	8.0	-	100
Millet-cowpea masa	91.0	1.0	1.0	2.0	5.0	-	100
Rice-millet-cowpea masa	96.0	1.0	1.0	2.0	-	-	100
Skim milk powder (reference)	28.4	1.0	1.0	2.0	58.6	9.0	100

a. Oil was not added to cooked masa diets because their oil contents ranged from 8% to 12%.

b. Ingredients of vitaminized oil (per kilogram): retinol, 300 mg; a-tocopherol, 10 g; vitamin D₂, 2 mg. Source: ref. 14.

c. Ingredients of vitaminized starch (per kilogram): vitamin K, 500 mg; riboflavin, 100 mg; pyridoxine, 400 mg; calcium pantothenate, 4.0 g; niacin, 4.0 g; choline (bitartrate), 200 g; inositol, 25 g; para-amino benzoic acid, 10 mg; vitamin B₁₂, 2 mg; biotin, 20 mg; folic acid, 200 mg. Source: ref. 14.

d. Ingredients of salt mixture (grams): CaCO₃, 543.00; MgCO₃, 25.00; MgSO₄, 16.00; NaCl, 69.00; KCl, 112.00; KH₂PO₄, 212.00; FePO4 4H₂O, 20.50; KI, 0.08; MnSO₄, 0.35; NaF, 1.00; Al₂(SO₄)₃K₂SO₄, 0.17; CUSO₄, 0.90. Source: ref 15.

FIG. 1. Laboratory preparation of cereal-legume masa

Results and discussion

Chemical composition

The proximate compositions of formulated unprocessed masa flour blends and the cooked masa samples are given in table 3. The protein content ranged from 7% to 12%, crude fat content from 0.8% to 12.7%, and ash content from 0.6% to 2.9%. The protein content of fermented and cooked masa was slightly lower than that of unprocessed masa in some samples. The fat and ash contents of cooked masa were higher than those of the unprocessed blends in all samples. The increase in fat was due to the vegetable oil used during cooking, some of which was absorbed by the batter. The increase in ash content could be due to the salt and trona water used in the preparation of masa. Oil absorption by masa resulted in an increase in the total energy as compared with the unprocessed blends. Masa is a food used for breakfast, and the FAO/WHO/UNU [10] recommendation is that at least one-fifth of the total daily requirement should be provided by breakfast. The energy content of formulated masa samples was within the recommended values [19].

The moisture content of cooked masa samples ranged from 56% to 62%. These values are comparable to the moisture content of traditionally baked masa, which was about 56% [9]. The titratable acidity and pH of masa (dry weight basis after freeze drying) ranged from 0.5% to 2.3% and from 3.4% to 3.8%, respectively, comparable to values for traditional masa.

The mineral compositions of formulated masa, rice masa, and millet masa are given in table 4. The calcium content of all samples was low when compared with ISI standards [14]. Cereal and grain legumes are not good sources of calcium. The phosphorus content was also low. Rice-cowpea masa and rice-cowpea-groundnut masa had the highest amount of phosphorus. Magnesium and sodium contents of formulated masa were high.

The addition of trona (an impure evaporate mineral sodium sesquicarbonate salt found as a saline lake deposit) and sodium chloride was responsible for the increase in magnesium and sodium. The levels of zinc, copper, and chromium were within the safe limits [20]. The total ash content of trona was 73%, and the levels of sodium, magnesium, iron, phosphorus, and lead were high (table 4). Trona also contained about 27% organic matter. The use of trona in traditional food preparation may be introducing these minerals into the diet of the people. The nutritional and toxicological aspects of trona have not been reported. However, the use of trona is believed to assist leavening or swelling (sponginess) of masa. It is also believed to reduce flatulence and the cooking time of cowpea and soya flour [9, 21].

Table 3. Proximate composition of cooked masa and masa flour^a

Constituent	Masa from
	Rice	Millet	Rice-cowpea	Rice-cowpea-groundnut	Millet-cowpea	Rice-millet-cowpea	ISI standards
Moisture (g)	2.1(11.0)	1.6 (7.6)	2.0 (9.9)	1.8 (8.4)	1.7 (6.9)	2.0 (8.7)	Max 10.0
Protein (g)	7.0 (7.1)	9.6(10.2)	10.8(10.8)	11.4(12.1)	11.1 (11.8)	10.0 (10.2)	Min 14.0
Crude fat (g)	8.5 (0.8)	9.7 (4.1)	10.4 (0.9)	12.7 (7.5)	10.1 (3.8)	9.4 (2.5)	Max 7.5
Total ash (g)	2.2 (0.6)	2.0 (1.3)	2.9 (0.7)	2.7 (1.1)	2.9 (1.1) 1)	2.8 (0.8)	Max 5.0
Carbohydrate (g) by difference	80.3 (80.6)	77.1(76.9)	74.1(77.7)	71.5(70.9)	74.4 (76.5)	75.9 (78.0)	Min 45.0
Energy (kcal)	426 (358)	434 (385)	433 (362)	446 (400)	434 (387)	428 (375)

a. Values are means of duplicate determinations. Values in parentheses are proximate composition of masa flour formulations.

Table 4. Mineral composition of formulated masa blends and trona (kanwa)

Constituent	Masa from
	Rice	Millet	Rice-cowpea	Rice-cowpea-groundnut	Millet-cowpea	Rice-millet-cowpea	Trona (kanwa)
Calcium (mg)	32.0	29.0	27.4	28.9	30.4	24.3	258.5
Phosphorus (mg)	125.0	103.0	167.6	159.1	129.1	125.6	773.3
Iron (ppm)	36.0	80.4	44.9	36.0	79.9	54.5	1,397.6
Lead (ppm)	1.0	1.0	0.5	1.0	1.5	1.8	9.8
Copper (ppm)	3.0	4.0	2.5	2.0	3.0	2.0	19.7
Zinc (ppm)	18.0	46.9	19.5	20.0	39.4	33.5	Nda
Cadmium (ppm)	ND	ND	ND	ND	ND	ND	ND
Chromium (ppm)	0.8	0.8	ND	ND	ND	ND	39.4
Manganese (ppm)	9.0	3.0	10.0	11.5	5.0	6.5	39.4
Magnesium (ppm)	1,299	699	1,996	2,997	898	899.5	5,905.5
Sodium (ppm)	1,499	1,596	1,397	1,499	1,596	1,599	15,748.0

a. ND, Not determined.

Effect of supplementation and processing on the amino acid composition of masa

Lysine increased as a result of the supplementation, especially in the millet-cowpea and rice-millet-cowpea masa (table 5). In millet-cowpea masa (83:13), the lysine content increased by about 75%. The increase in the lysine content of rice-cowpea (80:20) masa compared with rice masa was about 9%, while for rice-cowpea-groundnut (80:8:12) masa it was 12%. The other essential amino acids that increased as a result of supplementation were histidine, threonine, valine, and isoleucine. Threonine increased by 16% in rice-cowpea-groundnut masa and by 25% in millet-cowpea masa. Other workers have reported similar increases in amino acids for cereal-legume -based foods [22].

There was a considerable increase in weight gain, food intake, and protein intake of rats fed the fortified diet compared with those fed the unfortified diet. It appeared that sourness alone was not the only factor that resulted in low food intake. Minerals and vitamins appear to play a significant role in the ability of the rats to utilize the food consumed.

It could be observed that, although grain legumes may significantly improve the protein quality of cereal-based diets, the incorporation of minerals and vitamins is essential for the growth and well-being of those rats that consume them.

The apparent BV, apparent digestibility, and apparent net utilization for the diets (table 6) ranged from 81% to 96%, 82% to 86%, and 74% to 81%, respectively. There was no significant difference in the BV of all the diets (p >.05) except for the reference diets. This could be due to the fairly similar amino acid levels (table 5) in the food proteins. Millet masa and millet-cowpea masa had the highest apparent digestibility, even though the rats did not grow well on these diets. The reason could be that what little quantity of food the rats ate was utilized to maintain body weight. Also the NPU of millet masa and millet-cowpea masa was higher than that for the other diets, except for the reference protein.

Table 5. Amino acid composition (mole%) of masa containing cowpea, groundnut, rice, and millet

Amino acid	Rice	Millet	Rice-cowpea	Rice-cowpea-groundnut	Millet-cowpea	Rice-millet-cowpea
Aspartate	6.9	4.5	7.1	7.6	6.1	5.4
Glutamate	16.0	17.3	15.3	16.5	17.6	14.8
Serine	6.9	5.6	6.1	6.6	5.8	6.0
Glycine	8.0	3.9	6.9	8.1	4.8	6.0
Histidine	2.9	0.6	1.9	1.0	1.5	1.7
Arginine	7.2	2.3	5.9	6.2	2.7	3.8
Threonine	3.8	2.8	3.1	4.4	3.5	3.4
Alanine	13.3	26.6	17.3	14.1	17.6	17.4
Proline	6.3	7.6	6.0	5.5	7.1	6.4
Tyrosine	2.0	1.1	1.6	1.8	1.5	1.8
Valine	6.8	5.9	6.2	6.6	6.9	7.6
Methionine	2.2	1.4	1.3	1.2	1.4	1.7
Cysteine	NDa	ND	ND	ND	ND	ND
Isoleucine	3.9	3.9	4.4	4.3	4.7	5.0
Leucine	9.5	12.2	9.9	8.6	11.8	11.5
Phenylalanine	4.1	3.3	4.0	4.1	4.4	1.6
Lysine	3.3	1.6	3.6	3.7	2.8	3.4

a. ND, Not determined.

Table 6. Apparent biological value (BV), apparent digestibility, and net protein utilization (NPU) of formulated masa^a

Diet	N intake mg/day/rat	N excreted mg/day/rat		(%)	N retention BV	Apparent digestibility	NPU
		Faecal	Urinary
Rice masa	87.1	15.6	6, 6	75	91a	82a	75ab
Millet masa	96.4	11.3	8.5	80	90a	88c	79bc
Rice-cowpea masa	114.0	20.0	9.6	74	90a	82a	74a
Rice-cowpea-groundnut masa	125.3	22.3	7.5	76	93a	82a	76abc
Millet-cowpea masa	122.1	16.3	9.2	79	81a	86bc	79abc
Rice-millet-cowpea masa	113.8	18.5	8.7	76	91a	84ab	76abc
Skim milk powder	135.9	21.7	4.2	81	96b	84ab	81c
SEM					± 1.07	± 1.22	± 1.51

a. Means in the same column followed by different letters differ significantly (p <.05) according to Duncan’s new multiple range test.

In conclusion, the nutritional quality of rnasa, an important breakfast item prepared mainly from rice and millet, can be improved by supplementation of rice or millet flour with cowpea and/or groundnut flour up to 20%. Sensory evaluation studies (results not shown) on masa quality revealed that cereal-legume-based masa was comparable to single-cereal-based masa. The introduction of such a nutritionally improved product in Nigeria and other Sahelian African countries should play an important role in improving the diet. Addition of vitamins and minerals can result in a more nutritionally complete food.

It is recommended that further studies on enriched masa should be based on formulating shelf-stable masa flour. This will help facilitate the acceptability of masa in other parts of Nigeria where it has not found wide acceptance. The microbiology of masa fermentation also needs to be investigated for its effect on quality.

Acknowledgments

We thank the following staff of CFTRI: Mr. S. Vibhakar and Dr. Nag for assisting in the mineral analysis of foods, Dr. L. Gowda for amino acid analysis, and Mr. B. S. Ramesh for statistical analysis of the data. The United Nations University awarded a fellowship to Dr. I. Nkama to carry out the study.

References

1. Nkama I, Iliyas A, Jato A. Studies on the preparation and nutrient composition of kunun gyada, a traditional Nigerian cereal-based food. Food Nutr Bull 1995;16: 238-40.

2. Eggum BO, Hansen I, Larsen T. Protein quality and digestible energy of selected foods determined in balance trials with rats. Plant Foods for Human Nutrition 1989;39:13-21.

3. Badi S, Pedersen B, Monowar L, Eggum BO. The nutritive value of new and traditional sorghum and millet foods from Sudan. Plant Foods for Human Nutrition 1990;40:5-19.

4. Almeida-Dominguez LID, Serna-Soldivar SO, Gomez MH, Rooney LW. Production and nutritional value of weaning foods from mixtures of pearl millet and cowpea. Cereal Chem 1993;70:14-18.

5. Ahmed AM, Singh B, Singh U. Improvement of sensory nutritional qualities of sorghum-based kisra by supplementation with groundnut. J Food Sci Tech 1993;30:121-6.

6. Chavan JK, Kadam S. Nutritional improvement of cereals by fermentation. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 1989;28:349-400.

7. Nkama I, Sopade PA. Strategies for agro-based food industries: raw material supply, food processing and sanitation. In: Proceedings of a workshop 31 May-1 June 1990 by the Northeastern Chapter of the Nigerian Institute of Food Science and Technology held in the University of Maiduguri. Maiduguri, Nigeria: University of Maiduguri, 1990:58-91.

8. Mensah P, Drasar BS, Harrison TJ, Tomkin SAM. Fermented cereal gruels toward a solution of weanlings dilemma. Food Nutr Bull 1991; 13:50-5.

9. Nkama I. Studies on improving the nutritional quality of masa-a traditional Nigerian fermented cereal based food. A report to the United Nations University. Mysore, India: Central Food Technology Research Institute (CFTRI), 1993:1-28.

10. Food and Agriculture Organization/World Health Organization/United Nations University. Energy and protein requirements. Report of a joint expert consultation. WHO Technical Report Series No. 724. Geneva: World Health Organization, 1985.

11. AACC. Approved methods of the American Association of Cereal Chemists. St. Paul, Minn, USA: American Association of Cereal Chemists, 1984.

12. AACC. Approved methods of the American Association of Cereal Chemists. St. Paul, Minn, USA: American Association of Cereal Chemists, 1986

13. AOAC. Official methods of analysis. 14th edn. Washington, DC: Association of Official Analytical Chemists, 1984.

14. ISI, No. 7481. Methods for determination of protein efficiency ratio. New Delhi: Indian Standards Institution, 1974.

15. Hubbel RB, Mendel LB, Wakeman AJ. A new salt mixture for use in experimental diets. J Nutr 1937;14:273-85.

16. Pellett PL, Young VR, eds. Some rat and human bioassay procedures. In: Nutritional evaluation of protein foods. Tokyo: United Nations University, 1980:103-20.

17. Bacon S. Faecal markers in metabolic balance studies. J Hum Nutr 1980;34:445-9.

18. Khetarpaul N, Chauhan BM. Biological utilization of pearl millet flour fermented with yeast and lactobacilli. Plant Foods for Human Nutrition 1991; 14:309-19;

19. Hofvander Y, Underwood BA. Processed supplementary foods for infants and young children, with special reference to developing countries. Food Nutr Bull 1987;9:3-9.

20. Prevention of Food Adulteration Act (PFA). Nirman Bhavan, Delhi, India: Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, 1988.

21. Omueti 0, Morton ID, Emery PW. Nutritional characteristics of soyabean seed flour after processing with sodium bicarbonate or trona. Int J Food Sci Nutr 1992; 43:147-53.

22. Ayers JL, Davenport BL. Peanut protein: a versatile food ingredient. Am Oil Chem Soc J 1977;54:109-16.

Use of a participatory learning process to develop a curriculum for postgraduate nutrition training

Curriculum
Conclusions
References

Rainer Gross, Ha Hui Khoi, and Beatrice Senemaud

Rainer Gross is an advisor of the Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) at the SEAMEO-TROPMED Regional Center for Community Nutrition in Jakarta, Indonesia. Ha Hui Khoi is the director of the National institute of Nutrition, Ministry of Health, in Hanoi, Viet Nam. Beatrice Senemaud is an advisor of the Food and Nutrition Organization of the United Nations at the National Institute of Nutrition in Hanoi.

Abstract

A participatory learning process (PLP) was used in Viet Nam to formulate a curriculum for a master of science (M.Sc.) degree in community nutrition. Students and professionals from different disciplines participated in a two-day workshop to develop a curriculum. The knowledge, skills, and attitudes required of a community nutritionist were identified and a curriculum was formulated. The experience showed that broad participation is necessary, the metaplan technique is useful, time is essential, and facilitation is needed. The PLP was used to collect a maximum number of experiences, document the outcomes, develop a consensus, and create a sense of ownership within the principal actors in the process.

Introduction

Traditionally, a curriculum that emerges from an internal academic process within a university needs approval at a higher administrative level. This carries the risk that the interests of all affected parties, including the students, may not be sufficiently considered. A participatory learning process (PLP) can help to obtain and understand the opinions of different parties and to arrive at a consensus. The following is an example of the use of a PLP in developing a curriculum for a master of science (M.Sc.) degree in community nutrition. This subject offers a useful example, since a nutrition curriculum involves a variety of interacting disciplines.

Academic nutrition training in Viet Nam

Despite the difficult nutritional situation in Viet Nam, which needs the technical assistance of nutritionists and other professionals trained in nutrition, no professional or academic degree programme in applied human nutrition was available in Viet Nam until recently. The implementation of the National Plan of Action in Nutrition (NPAN), which was prepared after the International Conference on Nutrition in 1992 and adopted by the Prime Minister in 1995, will require trained nutrition professionals at the postgraduate level. In October 1994, the National Institute of Nutrition (NIN) of the Ministry of Health and the College of Medicine in Hanoi, Socialist Republic of Viet Nam, started a master of science programme in community nutrition based on a curriculum they jointly developed. It was based mainly on existing expertise and was clinically oriented. The Southeast Asian Minister of Education Organization (SEAMEO) agreed to give support to the course in the context of their collaborative network. In January 1995, the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), with funds from the French government, began to assist the master of science programme and suggested a more multisectoral approach to community nutrition improvement [1]. In order to include new concepts into the two-year master of science programme, it was necessary to develop priorities for subject matters to be included in the curriculum.

It was believed that a participatory curriculum-development process based on the agreement of all participating institutions could help achieve a high-quality, sustainable academic training programme. The process involved three steps. First, it was agreed that the identification of priorities should be oriented mainly towards the tasks of community nutritionists and not mainly towards the expertise and resources of the academic training institutions. Second, these tasks were identified, and the knowledge, skills, and attitudes were described that were seen as necessary to complete these tasks. Third, the appropriate curriculum was determined.

An analysis identified how much of the revised curriculum could be taught using the human resources available locally at the two responsible institutions and what additional external resources would be needed.

Metaplan technique as an instrument for a PLP

Participatory action, visualization, and documentation are the main approaches of the metaplan technique that was used in the group work.

According to the application rules:

· All opinions are equally valid.

· The structure of the brainstorming process is based on a logical procedure.

· The facilitator helps with the structural development of the group work but gives no input on the contents of the discussion;

· Offered materials (cards, pens, etc.) are used according to the application rules.

· Each participant wrote an idea related to the topic on a card.

· Only one idea was included on each card.

· The ideas were written as succinctly as possible.

· The facilitator collected the written cards from each participant.

· Then the facilitator read each card aloud to make sure that the idea was understood by all participants.

· If the wording was unclear, it was revised.

· After having been read and clarified, the cards were pinned to the board.

Nutrition is an interdisciplinary science, and this must be reflected in the professional backgrounds of the students, the training content of the programme, the lecturers, and the career plans of the master’s degree holders. To take into consideration all interests and expectations, a two-day participatory workshop was held with 48 people from various sectors to establish the basis for an appropriate curriculum for the academic training of community nutritionists. Ideas were collected from this wide range of individuals involved in the field of nutrition, and the scope of the master of science programme was defined. High-level decision makers and representatives of several national (e.g., State Planning Committee, Ministry of Education, Ministry of Health, Ministry of Agriculture, College of Medicine, College of Agriculture), and international (e.g., Food and Agriculture Organization, GTZ, Oxfam, UNICEF, World Health Organization) institutions in Hanoi working in the field of nutrition participated.

On the first morning, the objective of the workshop and the description of the three steps were explained to the participants. This information served to alert the participants to the scope of the work of a community nutritionist. The basic information on the nutritional situation in Viet Nam and a description of the existing curriculum were provided by the director of NIN. The participants were then asked to identify tasks that a community nutritionist should carry out while working at the different levels of the government (village, district, provincial, and national). The participants wrote their ideas on cards, using a separate card for each task. The cards were collected and hung on a board. Table I gives an overview of the contributions of the participants related to the tasks of a community nutritionist. The tasks were clustered into related activities. The most often stated tasks of a nutritionist were related to communication (eight cards), followed by nutritional assessment (seven cards), management (six cards), intervention (four cards), and research (one card).

Knowledge, skills, and attitudes

The results of the morning plenary session served as a basis for the afternoon work in two parallel groups to identify the knowledge, skills, and attitudes that students should gain during their academic training. Again, ideas were written on cards and displayed on a board. Both groups presented their results at the beginning of the next day and merged them into a single joint project. As shown in table 2, management (17 cards under skills and knowledge) and assessment (14 cards under skills and knowledge) appeared as the most important tasks and subjects. In contrast to preconceived ideas, clinical medicine was not emphasized. In particular, assessment (11 cards identified skills versus 3 knowledge), management (11 cards skills, 6 knowledge), and communication (5 cards skills, 2 knowledge) were seen as subjects in which the skills are most needed, whereas subjects such as basic nutrition (8 cards) and food safety (8 cards) were only mentioned in connection with an increase of knowledge. The importance of developing skills in an academic programme does not receive sufficient recognition internationally or in Viet Nam.

It is widely acknowledged that it is generally easier in an academic training programme to improve knowledge and skills than to instill in the students the necessary attitude for their future work. Attitudes necessary for better job performance were identified by a working group as shown in table 2. These accepted teaching goals will require new teaching methods and teaching structures. In the context of Viet Nam, with its strong community orientation and the set of goals regarding the NPAN, it was agreed that special attention would also be given to adopting required attitudes.

Table 1. Overview of tasks of a community nutritionist according to 48 workshop participants

Communicate » Train - Conduct training for hospital staff (especially MCH staff) - Train field workers in nutrition » Inform - Provide information, education, and training to the community - Disseminate nutritional knowledge to the public » Interact - Communicate easily with the community - Communicate with the community and institutions - Communicate with foreign institutions - Work in a multidisciplinary approach Diagnose and analyse » Assess and understand the nutritional situation of the community » Assess nutritional status and nutrient deficiencies at the community level » Understand the common nutritional diseases in Viet Nam » Assess the nutrient requirement to improve health status » Assess the local nutritional situation » Assess dietary intake » Consider food behaviour and practices of farmers Manage » Manage nutrition programmes » Implement nutrition programmes efficiently » Organize adequate nutrition for the community » Manage the treatment of food-borne diseases » Coordinate activities of different sectors » Implement nutrition programmes at the community level Intervene » Develop guidelines on feeding and food preparation for hospital departments of obstetrics and gynaecology and of paediatrics » Contribute to the formulation of a policy and strategy for agricultural development » Implement nutrition education » Develop a strategy for food safety and hygiene programmes for the community Conduct research » Combine nutritional research with community nutrition intervention

Curriculum

Using the results of the participatory workshop and considering the official regulations for an academic postgraduate programme in Viet Nam, a small group of experts formulated the objectives (table 3) and an outline of a curriculum (table 4) for the master of science programme in community nutrition. The structure has similarities to the master of science programme offered by the SEAMEO-TROPMED Community Nutrition Program at the University of Indonesia in Jakarta [2]. The objectives and the outline were presented again in a plenary session and after a final discussion approved by the participants.

Table 2. Assessment of the importance of different types of knowledge, skills, and attitudes that are needed to carry out the tasks of a nutritionist, according to the number of cards mentioning each type

Type of knowledge, skill, or attitude	No. of cards
Knowledge
Basic nutrition	8
Food safety	8
Nutritional planning and management	6
Nutritional anthropology	5
Agriculture and nutrition	5
Nutritional epidemiology	4
Food science	3
Food and nutrient intervention	3
Health and nutrition	3
Assessment of nutritional situation	3
Nutrition and communication	2
Economy	2
Foreign languages	2
Computer usage	1
Statistics	1
Skills
Assessing	11
Managing	11
Communicating	5
Identifying appropriate interventions	2
Research	2
Implementing interventions	1
Training the trainers	1
Attitudes
Willingness to permanently learn	3
Eagerness to work in nutrition profession	2
Respect for traditional knowledge	1
Giving good example	1
Seeking practical and feasible solutions	1
Helping the community	1
Liking for scientific work	1
Eagerness to work in nutrition passionately	1
Carefulness in work	1
Liking to work with people	1

The first year started with the four core certificates (S1-S4) required by the Ministry of Education. The three basic nutrition courses (B1-B3) cover nutrition at the molecular (biochemistry), organ (physiology), individual (pathology of malnutrition), and population (epidemiology) levels. The applied certificates (B4-B5) should start with assessment, followed by planning and management. The next three courses (B6-B8) deal with interventions that contribute to the improvement of nutritional status: nutrition and the agricultural system, nutrition and the health system, and economy and development.

Table 3. General and specific objectives of the master of science programme in community nutrition

General objective The master of science course in community nutrition provides professionals of different backgrounds with knowledge, skills, and attitudes needed to promote the improvement of nutrition of the rural and urban people of Viet Nam Specific objectives At the end of the training course, the participants will be able to: » understand links between nutrition, food, health, and development, including population and environment issues; » collect information about, identify, and analyse the nature, magnitude, severity, and causes of the nutrition problems of different population groups from the community to the national level; » plan, implement, monitor, and evaluate nutrition programmes and projects at different levels following a multisectoral approach; » carry out food and nutrition interventions; train and teach nutrition from the field level to the academic level; » plan and implement applied research and disseminate the results to the public and the scientific community.

A number of professionals, such as agronomists, public health specialists, and economists, are involved in teaching activities. This is particularly important, since the community nutritionists should know all of the important interventions available, the conditions under which they can be successfully implemented, and to whom to address their efforts. The last three applied courses (B9-B11) cover interventions implemented by nutritionists related to nutrients and food, nutrition education, and communication.

Special attention is required in training for gaining knowledge and skills. In particular, small classroom exercises should deepen freshly gained knowledge. The first year ends with field practice in which the participants merge their gained knowledge and skills in a comprehensive task under practical conditions. The second year of the programme is reserved for the development of a research proposal and the implementation of the thesis work. During this time, several oral and written reports present the conceptual framework, methodology, operational planning, and data analysis. The student should interact with the faculty and other professionals when completing the report.

Table 4. List of certificates offered in the master of science programme in community nutrition

Coursea	Training time
First academic year
S1 English	120 h
S2 History of philosophy	96 h
S3 Statistics and computer usage	60 h
S4 Teaching and research methods	80 h
B1 Biochemistry and physiology	2 wk
B2 Pathology of nutrition	2 wk
B3 Nutritional epidemiology	3 wk
B4 Nutritional assessment and analysis	2 wk
B5 Nutritional planning and management	2 wk
B6 Nutrition and the agricultural system	2 wk
B7 Nutrition and the health system	2 wk
B8 Economy and development	2 wk
B9 Food and nutrition interventions	2 wk
B10 Food safety	2 wk
B10 Communications	4 wk
F1 Field practice	3 mo
Second academic year
F2 Research proposal	2 mo
F2 Field study (thesis)	7 mo

a. Course numbers beginning with S indicate subjects that are offered 2-4 h weekly over the whole year. Numbers beginning with B indicate subjects that are offered in blocks as short courses. Numbers beginning with F indicate subjects that are related to field work (field practice, research proposal, thesis).

Conclusions

Broad participation is necessary

A curriculum should be developed not only by academic staff but with additional expertise from different relevant segments of the society, such as educational planners, employers, students, and alumni. The inclusion of participants from different national and international organizations in the PLP ensured that the curriculum design would recognize their institutional needs, thus stimulating the brainstorming process and avoiding, or at least reducing significantly, the commonly experienced domination of particular academic interests and powers. The curriculum still lacks sufficient recognition of physiological, behavioural, and social aspects. However, considering that the starting point of the first curriculum was principally clinically oriented, a major achievement has been reached by accepting the multidisciplinarity of nutrition.

The metaplan technique is useful

The metaplan technique visualizes and documents communication within groups. This technique was used as a communication tool in the participatory learning process. The use of cards to collect and visualize ideas leads to wide and active participation during the brainstorming process, since the cards are written anonymously and they allow input from participants who lack self-confidence or fear hierarchy or seniority.

Counting redundant cards helps to increase objectivity in the decision-making process. Visualization by cards leads to openness, which helps to understand the rationale of the decision process, document the outcome of the process, and avoid subjective and irrational decisions.

Time is essential

High-ranking decision makers always lack time. However, it is important to integrate them into the process in order to ensure that the outcome of the learning process is put into action. High-ranking representatives will participate in a workshop for a maximum of half a day. It is particularly important to have them in the process at the beginning of the workshop for crucial input of information to set the framework. Otherwise, there is the risk that the results will be developed under assumptions that are unrealistic and unacceptable to the decision makers.

Facilitation is needed

The participatory workshop is a process and an instrument. However, each instrument works only as well as its user. Working with high-ranking decision makers and academic staff members requires facilitators who have had much professional and group work experience.

Provision for prompt implementation

The best participatory learning process will lose its credibility with the participants, as well as with non-participants, if the decisions are not rapidly and visibly put into action. Therefore, leadership is needed within the institution that is responsible for the academic programme during the follow-up process to implement the results of the workshop.

References

Khoi HH, Hoan PV, Senemaud B, Goessmann K, Hop LT, Hoa DT, eds. Training manpower for the implementation of the nutrition programme in Viet Nam. Hanoi, Viet Nam: National institute of Nutrition, Medical Publishing House, 1995.

Gross R, Sastroamidjojo S, Schultink W, Sediaoetama AD. Academic action-oriented nutrition training in developing countries: a Southeast Asian experience. Southeast Asia J Clin Nutr 1995;8:12-6.