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TABLE 9. Summary of studies of anthropometric measurements of women in developing countries
| Study | Sample characteristicsa | Year/season | Height (cm) | Weight (kg) | Weight/height (percen-tile)b | Triceps skin-fold (mm) | Arm circumference (cm) |
Africa |
|||||||
| Kenya [89] | rural, pregnant (190) | 1979-80 | |||||
| 3.1 months | 52.5 | 14.2 | 24.8 | ||||
| 5.3 months | 54.7 | 14.6 | 25.0 | ||||
| 7.5 months | 56.7 | 14.6 | 24.5 | ||||
| Upper Volta [62] |
farmers, non-pregnant (14) | Dec./Jan (end of harvest) |
158.0 | 49.9 | 15th | ||
Asia and Oceania |
|||||||
| East Java[90] | random-sample, large-scale | dry season | |||||
| nutrition survey | 1975-76 | ||||||
| NPNL (2,150) | 149.0 | 42.0 | 5th | 23.4 | |||
| lactating (1,421) | 148.0 | 42.8 | 10th | 23.2 | |||
| pregnant | |||||||
| 1st trimester (59) | 149.0 | 42.4 | 5th | 22.6 | |||
| 2nd trimester (83) | 149.0 | 45.3 | 15th | 23.2 | |||
| 3rd trimester (104) | 149.0 | 48.2 | 25th | 22.9 | |||
| Micronesia [67] |
residents of recently West- | 155.4 | 82.6 | >100th | |||
| ternized Nauru (142) | |||||||
| Philippines [91] |
urban | 1983-86 | |||||
| pregnant, 3rd trimester | |||||||
| (2,553) | 150.6 | 52.7 | 50th | 13.1 | 24.8 | ||
| birth (2.336) | 150.6 | 50.4 | 50th | 12.5 | 24.7 | ||
| postpartum | |||||||
| 2 months (2.178) | 150.6 | 47.8 | 25th | 12.7 | 24.8 | ||
| 6 months (2,038) | 150.6 | 46.7 | 15th | 12.5 | 24.6 | ||
| 14 months ( 1.972) | 150.6 | 46.4 | 15th | 12.1 | 24.5 | ||
| rural | 1983-86 | ||||||
| pregnant. 3rd trimester | |||||||
| (772) | 150.4 | 50.9 | 5th | 11.6 | 24.3 | ||
| birth (718) | 150.4 | 49.4 | 50th | 11.1 | 24.3 | ||
| postpartum | |||||||
| 2 months (696) | 150.4 | 47.0 | 25th | 11.3 | 24.3 | ||
| 6 months (669) | 150.4 | 45.7 | 15th | 11.2 | 24.2 | ||
| 14 months (669) | 150.4 | 45.2 | 15th | 10.7 | 24.1 | ||
| New Guinea [68] |
coastal subsistence farmers | ||||||
| pregnant (9) | 153.0 | 51.7 | 50th | ||||
| non-pregnant | |||||||
| age 18-29 (29) | 152.0 | 49.0 | 25th | ||||
| age 30+(31) | 150.0 | 44.4 | 15th | ||||
| highlands | |||||||
| pregnant (7) | 153.0 | 53.5 | 50th | ||||
| non-pregnant | |||||||
| age 18-29 (28) | 152.0 | 51.3 | 50th | ||||
| age 30+ (6) | 150.0 | 45.8 | 15th | ||||
| Papua New Guinea [69] |
adult women | ||||||
| (45) | 1975 | 148.9 | 44.6 | 10th | 6.8 | ||
| (143) | 1984 | 148.2 | 44.5 | 10th | 5.8 | ||
| India [92] | urban | ||||||
| pregnant | |||||||
| 1st trimester (408) | 150.8 | 44.3 | 15th | 22.6 | |||
| 2nd trimester (1,522) | 150.1 | 47.1 | 25th | 21.3 | |||
| NPNL (1,025) | 150.1 | 44.4 | 15th | 23.0 | |||
| lactating | |||||||
| 0-6 months(860) | 150.2 | 44.2 | 15th | 23.1 | |||
| 7-12 months (609) | 149.4 | 42.9 | 5th | 22.3 | |||
| Bangladesh [93] |
rural | ||||||
| pregnant | 1975-78 | ||||||
| 1st trimester ( 1,200) | 41.0 | 22.1 | |||||
| 2nd trimester (1,023) | 42.5 | 22.0 | |||||
| 3rd trimester (825) | 45.0 | 21.9 | |||||
| non-pregnant (58) | 42.4 | 22.4 | |||||
| NPNL | 1976 | ||||||
| Jan. (817, 687)c | 40.2 | 21.8 | |||||
| May (810, 808)c | 40.6 | 22.0 | |||||
| Oct. (845. 847)c | 39.9 | 21.8 | |||||
| postpartum, amenor- rhoeic, most lactating |
|||||||
| 3 months (1,088) | 41.9 | 21.5 | |||||
| 6 months (846) | 40.9 | 21.7 | |||||
| 9 months (653) | 40.5 | 21.7 | |||||
| 12 months (506) | 40.1 | 21.7 | |||||
Latin America |
|||||||
| Brazil [75] | random sample, migrant families (85) |
153.0 | 57.0 | 75th | 14.3 | 27.6 | |
| Costa Rica [77] |
rural, pregnant | 1979-80 | |||||
| 1st trimester (12) | 155.2 | 52.1 | 50th | ||||
| 2nd trimester (46) | 154.6 | 56.6 | 50th | ||||
| 3rd trimester (46) | 154.6 | 60.4 | 75th | ||||
| Dominica[94] | pregnant (340) | 1978 | |||||
| 1st visit ( 19.4 wks) | 60.2 | ||||||
| last visit (37.8 wks) | 66.4 | ||||||
| Guatemala [79; 80] |
pregnant | ||||||
| 1st trimester (265) | 47.3d | ||||||
| 2nd trimester (274) | 50.0d | ||||||
| 3rd trimester (400) | 53.6d | ||||||
| lactating | |||||||
| 3 months (480) | 48.4d | ||||||
| 6 months (496) | 47.7d | ||||||
| 9 months (533) | 47.1d | ||||||
| 1 year (552) | 46.4d | ||||||
| Mexico [95] | Indians living traditional life in mountains |
||||||
| age 19-30(29) | 152.0 | 56.0 | 50th | 13.0 | |||
| age 31-50 (14) | 151.0 | 58.0 | 75th | 14.0 | |||
Middle East |
|||||||
| Iran [82] | urban hospital outpatients | ||||||
| low SES | |||||||
| pregnant (36) | 155.0 | 62.7 | 75th | ||||
| postpartum (21) | 155.0 | 55.2 | 50th | ||||
| mid SES | |||||||
| pregnant (52) | 155.0 | 60.8 | 75th | ||||
| postpartum (36) | 155.0 | 52.8 | 50th | ||||
| Jordan [96] | non-pregnant, by age | ||||||
| 20-24 (633) | 154.7 | 58.7 | 75th | ||||
| 25-29 (1,022) | 155.2 | 61.2 | 75th | ||||
| 30_34 (736) | 155.3 | 63.3 | 85th | ||||
| 35-39(527) | 155.1 | 65.7 | 85th | ||||
| 40-44 (264) | 155.7 | 67.4 | 90th | ||||
a. NPNL = non-pregnant,
non-lactating. SES = socio-economic status. Figures in
parentheses indicate sample size.
b. Approximate percentiles of weight for height based on
Hanes I and 11 data for small-framed women 25-56 years old and
mean height and weights of the population.
c. Sample sizes for weight and triceps skinfold
respectively.
d. Weight standardized by height.
Studies on anthropometric measurements of women in developing countries are even fewer than dietary studies.5 Although women in some countries have weights far below the WHO "reference woman" of 55 kilograms, women's weights appear to be more adequate than their dietary intakes. Women in Africa and Asia are more deficient in fat stores than are Latin American and Near Eastern women. Women's chronic undernutrition is reflected also in extremely low stature. Two studies show low weight for height to be less common among women than men (Brazil, Upper Volta), although in both studies women consumed a smaller percentage of their recommended intakes than men. The explanation for this apparent contradiction may be that women's energy expenditure is lower than men's, or their metabolic efficiency may be higher. Whether this pattern holds true for other countries is not known. However, it does point out the weakness of evaluating nutritional status on the basis of dietary intake measures alone.
The amount and pattern of weight gain during pregnancy has been shown to be a critical indicator of pregnancy outcome. The average pregnant woman in Europe and the United States gains 10 to 12 kilograms; yet studies in several low-income countries report average pregnancy weight gains of only 2 to 7 kilograms [97-99]. Inadequate weight gain during pregnancy is an important cause of low birth weight [100].