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TABLE 8. Monthly food intake of marginal farmers: lean months (kg)

TABLE 9. Monthly food intake of marginal farmers: flush months (kg)

TABLE 10. Monthly food intake of small farmers: lean months (kg)

TABLE 11. Monthly food intake of small farmers: flush months (kg)

During the lean season, on the marginal farms, consumption of milk and milk products correlated positively with size of irrigated farms, milk yield, number of Jersey cows and consumption of pulses; it correlated negatively with milk sold to commercial agents and co-operatives. Income correlated positively with amount of irrigated land and number of ND buffaloes, and negatively with number of ND cows. Total food intake during the lean months was dependent on income and number of ND buffaloes. During the flush season, consumption of milk and milk products correlated positively with number of ND buffaloes, consumption of pulses, and size of irrigated farms, and negatively with milk sold to commercial agents and consumption of processed pulses and cereals. Income correlated positively with size of irrigated farms and number of ND buffaloes. Total food intake was positively correlated with income, number of ND cows, milk yield, and farm size, indicating that during the flush season, when fodder and green grass are available, ND cows also contributed to the higher total food intake.

During lean months, consumption of milk and milk products on small farms correlated positively with milk yield, amount of irrigated land, and consumption of pulses. Income correlated positively with amount of irrigated land, total land owned, and milk yield, and negatively with the number of ND cows. Total food intake correlated positively with irrigated land and milk yield. During the flush months, the consumption of milk and milk products correlated positively with number of ND buffaloes, consumption of pulses, milk yield, and irrigated farm size, and negatively with consumption of processed pulses and milk sold to co-operatives and commercial agents. Income during flush months correlated positively with irrigated land, total land owned, milk sold to co-operatives, and number of ND buffaloes. Total food intake was a function of income, number of hybrid cows, number of ND cows, and size of irrigated farms.

In the case of large farms, during lean months, consumption of milk and milk products correlated positively with consumption of pulses and milk yield, but negatively with milk sold to commercial agents and co-operatives, total farm size, and number of ND cows. Income during the lean months correlated positively with size of irrigated farms and number of ND buffaloes. Total food intake was dependent on size of irrigated farms.

During the flush season, for large-farm owners, the con sumption of milk and milk products correlated positively with number of ND buffaloes and milk yield. Income correlated positively with amount of irrigated land, number of ND buffaloes and hybrid cows, and total farm size. Total food intake correlated positively with number of ND cows, income, and milk yield. Food consumption was a weak function of income.

Thus in all dairy villages, the number of ND buffaloes owned and milk yield contributed significantly to the consumption of milk and milk products. The number of local breed (ND) cows tended to have a negative influence on consumption of milk and milk products.

In all income classes, size of irrigated farms and number of ND buffaloes were the most significant factors contributing to higher levels of income. The major contributing factors for food intake were income and milk yield. The number of ND cows owned by a family contributed to higher levels of food intake during flush months, indicating that ND cows contribute very little to food security during lean months. Higher milk yields, higher incomes, irrigated farm size, and higher number of ND buffaloes owned had a positive effect on stabilizing food intake during lean months.

Non-dairy Villages

In non-dairy villages, for the landless class during the lean season the consumption of milk and milk products correlated positively with the number of ND buffaloes, milk sold to co-operatives, and consumption of pulses. Income correlated positively with the number of ND buffaloes. Food intake was a function only of income.

During the flush months, consumption of milk products and milk was positively correlated with size of land holding and milk sold to commercial agents. Income correlated positively only with milk sold to commercial agents. Total food intake correlated positively with amount of land owned and income.

In the case of marginal farms, during lean months consumption of milk and milk products was positively influenced by milk yield and number of ND buffaloes, whereas it decreased with an increase in the number of ND cows. Income was positively related to amount of irrigated land, and number of ND buffaloes. Total food intake increased with income, number of ND buffaloes, and hybrid cows. During the flush months consumption of milk products was higher in households with ND buffaloes. Income in non-dairy households depended on size of irrigated farms and number of ND buffaloes. Total food intake was dependent on milk Yield and income.

The relationship was similar for small-farm owners. Consumption of milk and milk products was dependent on cattle population and size of irrigated farms. The major determinant of income was the number of ND buffaloes owned.

For large farm owners consumption of milk and milk products correlated positively with milk sold to commercial agents, number of Jersey cows, and consumption of pulses. The major determinants of income were size of irrigated farms and number of ND buffaloes or Jersey cows. Food intake was mainly a function of the number of ND buffaloes.

Thus, in non-dairy villages the amount of milk and milk products consumed increased with the number of ND buffaloes. The major determinant of income was the number of ND buffaloes and size of irrigated farms. For small landowners, income was the major determinant of total food intake, and the second contributing factor was the number of ND buffaloes owned.

Effect of Dairy Development on Nutritional Status

To examine the impact of dairy development on nutritional aspects, two hypotheses were tested:

1. In the households of villages with dairy development programmes, the calorie intake is higher for both seasons than in the households of villages without such programmes.

2. In the households of villages with dairy development programmes, the protein intake is substantially higher for both seasons than in the households of villages without such programmes.

Calorie intake was substantially higher during the lean months, indicating that dairy development was a stabilizing factor. For dairy villages, intake was 2,502 kcal during the lean season and 2,274 kcal during the flush season. For the non-dairy villages, these figures were 2,096 kcal and 1,972 kcal per capita per day respectively. The percentage of calories from dairy products is 14 per cent during the lean season and 12 per cent during the flush season for the dairy villages. Corresponding figures for the non-dairy villages are 5.5 and 6.6 per cent respectively. This clearly shows that dairy development programmes help to stabilize calorie intake during difficult months.

To examine the impact of dairy development on protein intake and the contribution of milk protein to total protein intake, the protein equivalents of foods consumed were estimated by multiplying the protein equivalent values (of Indian foods estimated by the National Institute of Nutrition, Hyderabad) by the consumption values. Table 12 gives the protein intake per month for dairy and non-dairy households separately. In dairy villages, the protein intake per capita per month was 2.5 kg and 2.3 kg for the lean and flush seasons respectively. For non-dairy households, these figures were 1.9 kg and 1.8 kg. Dairy development programmes thus contributed to a higher level of protein intake. This is supported by the fact that in dairy villages milk and milk products accounted for 21.9 per cent and 24.0 per cent of total protein intake (for lean and flush months), whereas the amount was substantially lower in non-dairy households—12.4 per cent and 10.8 per cent (table 12). This shows that dairy development contributes positively to the improvement of nutritional status in villages.

TABLE 12. Percentage of protein from commodity groups and protein intake per capita in villages with and without dairy development programmes

Fodder Shortage

One major problem that occurred in almost all villages was fodder shortage. Cattle distribution is not linked up with the fodder-generation programme. Data clearly indicate that fodder shortage is severe among the landless labourers and marginal farmers. The problem is acute in dairy villages because of the existence of a higher number of milk cattle. In Medikere, of 143 households owning cattle 36 reported shortage of fodder and of these 36 households 27 were in the landless and marginal landholding categories. Dairy development programmes should include fodder development as an intrinsic component.

CONCLUSIONS

The following major conclusions can be derived from the analysis made in this report:

1. In households of villages having dairy development programmes, food intake was higher than in households of villages without such programmes. The consumption of milk and milk products, non-vegetable foods (egg, meat, and fish), and vegetables was substantially higher in villages with the programmes, as was the average calorie and protein intake. Nutritional status improved because milk protein has a higher protein-efficiency ratio.

2. The observation that food intake is higher for all households in dairy villages was tested after disaggregating the data into four landholding classes for two seasons. For the landless class and owners of marginal farms, dairy development helped to improve income and total food intake. The consumption of milk products, vegetables, non-vegetable items, and total food products was higher among both of these classes in dairy villages than in nondairy villages. There was no substantial difference in food intake for owners of small and large farms in both types of villages. This supports the contention that dairy development is more beneficial to the diet of the poor.

3. During the lean months, dairy development helped to reduce the variability of food intake for the landless class as well as for marginal farmers. Dairy development provides a continuous source of income in summer when agricultural employment is low.

4. Multiple-regression analysis indicated that the major determinants of income were size of irrigated farms and number of ND buffaloes. The dairy development programmes included replacing less productive ND cows with ND buffaloes, thereby increasing income. The consumption of milk and milk products was related to milk yield and the number of ND buffaloes. Again, dairy development helped to improve the milk yield and increase the number of ND buffaloes. This resulted in more milk being produced in households and, therefore, in more being consumed. In all the households having access to dairy development programmes, milk and milk products contributed more to the protein intake. In villages without the programmes, providing hybrid cows alone did not result in substantial improvements in economic status. It was also observed that in a number of households, although ND cows contributed to increased food intake, there was no substantial improvement in income. In fact, during lean months, the number of ND cows has acted as a drain on income.

5. If dairy development does not provide all the necessary linkages (for example, fodder development), the full potential of the programmes may not be easily realized. In many areas in which programmes have been implemented, the fodder shortages are severe. The shortages are more frequent for the small-farm owners, indicating that if food security is to be achieved through dairy development, enough attention must be paid to fodder development as well as to came distribution.

6. In the villages without dairy development, providing ND buffaloes helped to increase income level, even if other support facilities were not provided, Where hybrid cows were distributed with no other dairy development infrastructure, this did not substantially help to improve the income of the poor. During the lean months, when employment opportunities in agriculture are few, milk yield is low and fodder shortage is greater, the ND cows do not contribute either to income or to total food intake. To summarize, dairy development programmes have helped to increase the number of milk cattle and stabilize milk yield. In non-dairy villages, the number of milk cattle is lower and the milk yield drops considerably during the lean months.

Although it is difficult to pair villages in order to compare the impact of dairy programmes, the existing data collected from the 10 villages in three major states support the hypothesis that dairy development helps to improve income and nutritional status, To assess quantitatively the exact impact of these programmes, detailed monitoring of nutrition and expenditure patterns over a year may be necessary, In this project this could not be done, since the original scope was limited to assessment of economic and nutritional status during two seasons. in the context of development, the major steps necessary to improve food security and nutrition in rural areas seem to be the following:

1. Replacement of ND cows by other breeds.
2. Providing channels for marketing milk and milk pro ducts.
3. Providing milk animals to the landless and marginal farmers through appropriate credit mechanisms.
4. Forming co-operative societies for collecting and chilling milk.
5. Improving the milk yield through appropriate breeding programmes .
6. Providing medical facilities for cattle.
7. Providing fodder along with cattle distribution.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors express their sincere gratitude to the United Nations University for sponsoring and providing a research grant to undertake this project. They thank Dr. N. S. Scrimshaw, Director, UNU Development Studies Division; M.B. Wallerstein, Project Director; and the task-force members for providing the necessary support and for suggesting how best to present the findings of the study. They also thank M. Narasimham, Principal, Administrative Staff College of India, and B R. Virmani, Chairman, Committee on Research, for providing the organizational support and institutional infrastructure for undertaking the study. Finally, thanks are due to M/S AP Dairy Development Corporation, Animal Husbandry Department, Government of Andhra Pradesh; Bharatiya Agro Industries Foundation, Pune; and Karnataka Dairy Development Board, for providing the necessary support in identifying the villages.

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