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GUIDE 10. USE AND EXPERIENCES WITH OFFICIAL HEALTH RESOURCE

Community: Household: Informant(s): Date(s):

When was the official health resource last used? What for? Opinion about services. Has any member of the health personnel visited the family in the last two weeks? Last month? Last year? Ever? When was the last visit? What for? Was any advice given regarding sanitation, personal hygiene, oral rehydration, family planning, etc.? Are children five years of age and under vaccinated?

V. ETHNOGRAPHIC METHODS

Basic Ethnographic Methods

In order to undertake this research, some primary techniques of anthropological field work should be followed. Ethnographic methods allow for the development of basic ethnography - detailed recording of the socio-cultural context in which health-seeking behaviour occurs. This is done in order to better understand and interpret this behaviour. Various techniques include the following:

1. Formal interviewing: A written series of questions concerning specific topics are asked of one individual (respondent) and recorded in detail.

2. Informal interviewing: More open-ended questions are asked on certain topics; the researcher follows a general outline, but additional subjects are easily incorporated as they come up. Several notes may be recorded.

3. Conversations: Important data can also be obtained through very informal conversations with individuals or with small groups. In some cases people are more at ease in these settings and talk more freely.

4. Observation: An anthropologist is always observing events and behaviour carefully. This provides valuable nonverbal clues as to what is actually occurring.

5. Participant observation: Just as the term implies, this involves the combination of participating in and observing the socio-cultural context of a household or community. Through this means the researcher gains important insights into the everyday life.

Specific Procedures for This Study

For the ethnographic work that is the core of this research the anthropologist will maintain three types of information records.

1. Brief Diary
The anthropologist will note in a diary very generally (without detail) what he or she has done each day of the study, e.g.: "6 July 1983, A.M. Interviews with Mrs. Diaz in the village of San Miguel. Lunch in Antigua. P.M. Interview with Mrs. Cuesta, village of San Miguel." It should be understood that this diary is a chronographic record of the daily activities of the anthropologist. It is not the field notes.

2. Field Notes
The anthropologist will also take brief notes of the observations and interviews that he or she conducts and will later amplify in detail. This amplification is also an activity that must be done daily, and time must be set aside specifically for the amplification of field notes.

Take brief notes during interviews except when you think that note-taking will inhibit the conversation (e.g., when an individual takes you aside and tells you something that she considers very confidential). The notes should include (in abbreviated form) the question and key words in the responses. Once in a while it is useful to note the exact words of the individual and write them in quotes: "'I gave him even the last drop.'" You also note what you observe using parentheses: "(She's telling me that one should not carry children too much but she has been holding her child since I came in an hour ago.)"

The same day expand on your brief notes. The key words in your notes should remind you of many phrases and ideas. While you are expanding on your notes add your impressions in parentheses, e.g.: "(I saw that she seemed very upset today because she only wanted to discuss the illness of the child. She did not want to sit down and she was twisting her hands constantly.)" Read over carefully what you have written. You can add details on the same page or you can add them on an additional page with numbered inserts.

Note questions that occur to you as you go over your notes daily. In addition to noting these questions in the report, put them in your notebook so that you have them ready when you return to that house - e.g., "(I still need to ask her why she thinks you have to get babies used to eating everything from the very first month.)"

Consider the pros and cons of tape recorders very carefully, remembering that you will have to interpret or transcribe everything you record. Be sure that tape recordings do not inhibit the conservation, and do not avoid taking brief notes. It is best to use a tape recording only to aid you in expanding on your notes.

You must make at least four copies of your expanded field notes, to be distributed as follows:

- for the research co-ordinator (principal investigator);
- for the field worker;
- to be filed by theme (you may need more than one copy as the same conversation may touch several themes);
- to be filed by family.

The third copy of your field notes may be cut up into portions that cover various themes and these portions filed in the appropriate folders. The folders to be maintained by theme are the following:

- the community (general description),
- socio-economic factors in the community,
- health resources (description of resources within the community and accessible outside the community, both in the Western biomedical system and the endogenous medical system),
- definitions of health and illness - beliefs,
- illnesses and possible solutions-remedies,
- general (ideal) diet for children less than five years of age,
- pregnancy and childbirth,
- family planning,
- utilization of health resources,
- personal experience with health services and representatives of health resources and services.

3. Family Files
There will also be a folder for each family in the study. In this folder you will file the family composition sheet, the questionnaires on the household and other socio- economic indications for that family, and each of the interview or data collection guides to be completed for that family. The guides are filled by taking brief notes during conversations, informal interviews, and observations in the field and then amplifying on those notes in the appropriate guides. If the space on the guide sheet itself is insufficient, you can use additional sheets to expand on themes using numbers to indicate where that additional information would fit on the guide sheet.

The family folders will also contain other field notes based on observation or conversations with that particular family. That is what the fourth copy of your notes is for. Finally, you should make a copy of each guide completed for each family in order to send it to the research co-ordinator.

The data collection guides are to help guide the interviews and to standardize the information that is collected in different countries on the family study. They should not be used as questionnaires. In each informal interview or conversation it is possible to discuss in detail one or more themes in the guides, and a series of informal interviews and conversations supplemented by observation will be used to fill in the guide. The specific guide might not be completely filled in one or even two interviews. Informal interviews and conversations should be conducted with both the male and female heads of households and with other adults that live in the household as members of the family.

Specific Methodological Examples

Some suggestions and examples to assist in the ethnographic work follow:

1. When the specific person, usually the mother, that you are looking for that day is not there, chat anyway with other members of the family or neighbours. Sometimes information emerges that the person you were seeking would not have told you.

Example: A researcher did not realize that the mother of Tomasa lived with her until she found her in the house one day when Tomasa was not home. The conversation with the mother that day yielded some very useful information. In addition, these conversations can help you cross-check information that you have gotten from other individuals.

2. You must respect the confidentiality of the interview. You must be very careful not to make comments about one person you are studying (or their child) to the neighbours.

Example: A neighbour: "Good-morning Maricela, how is Mrs. Padilla? Could it be true what they say that her husband left her for another woman?" Maricela: "Well I don't know how that is, Juana. And your son-in-law, how is he?"

Another aspect of confidentiality is to use first names or initials in your field notes but to use only pseudonyms in the final report. The actual names and addresses of the families studied should be kept in a safe place. The specific name of the community studied can be replaced by a pseudonym in the final report at the researcher's discretion.

3. Don't influence (bias) responses.

Example: Question: "Why is breast-milk good?" This question biases the response because you are already suggesting that it is good. The same question could be asked without introducing as much bias by asking, "Why are you giving breast-milk?" Answer: "Because it is good." Question: "Why is is good?" Another alter. native would be to ask, "What do you think about breast-milk?"

4. Don't influence (bias) with your attitudes and behaviour.

Example: "Good morning, Mrs. Ann. How lovely and plump your little girl is. See how nicely she grows on breast-milk." With this greeting you are telling Mrs. Ann that you think that her child is healthy (looks good) and that breast-milk is the best milk. This influences and biases the study. Alternative form: "Good morning, Mrs. Ann, and how is your little girl?"

5. Try to work in as much depth as possible. Avoid being satisfied with superficial answers or moving too quickly from one topic to the other. Work for detailed responses. Use phrases like: Why? How did you feel when that happened? Did you see that? Did you do that? What do you think or what did you think? What happened when ?

Example: "I spent all day yesterday at the Health Centre." Question: "Why do you think that happened?" (Listen for the response.) "How did you feel about spending the day there?" The probing questions should be neutral; that is to say, they should not influence the responses. Don't change the subject too abruptly and try not to interrupt your informant.

6. When you want to be sure that you have heard clearly what the informant was saying or that the informant really intended to say what you heard, you can avoid the necessity of repeating the question with the tactic of reflecting back the response.

Example: Question: "Why do you think your child became ill?" Answer: "Well, it's the man who lives next door. He gave her the evil eye." Question: "Oh, the man next door gave her the evil eye?" Answer: "Yes. You see, we were coming from the market with the little girl and he saw her and he admired her too much." Question: "How so, too much?" Answer: "Well, he came near and he exclaimed . . . (etc.)."

This technique can also be used when the informant asks a question. You can reflect the question back.

Example: "How old can you be and still have children?" Response: "What do you think, how old can you be and still have children?"

7. The previous example also illustrates a form of postponing answers to questions that are asked of you during the interview. If you give your opinion, you will not then know what the informant thinks on the topic because you will have influenced the response. In the same way you should postpone the behaviour which may interfere with the study.

Example: Taking a sick child to the health post. You should only do something like that in cases where the child appears to be at severe risk of dying and only after having discovered what the family would do without your influence.

8. Be patient. It is not necessary to be asking and talking constantly. Sometimes you can pause to think, and you can pause to let your informant think. If you wait, sometimes your informant will feel more comfortable and will elaborate on a point.

9. Don't interrupt the work of your informant. Your informant is doing you a favour by participating in the research. If she (for example) asks to interrupt the conversation to look after her children, or other people, or to do work, tell her to continue her work with confidence. You can take advantage of this time to think, to look at your notes to see what else you would like to discuss, and to observe various aspects of the house - how she prepares food, how she interacts with her children and other family members and other similar behaviours.

10. Always note the hour when you initiate the interview and the hour when you finish, who went with you, who was in the house during the interview, and who your main informant(s) was(were).

11. Be familiar with your instruments (data collection guides), both in terms of the general themes as well as some specific questions you have in mind under each theme. This will facilitate the informal interviews sounding like natural conversations. In addition, this will help you avoid asking questions that are irrelevant to the central focus of the study.

12. Don't make false promises or give false ideas of the study in order to obtain the co-operation of the family selected.

Example: "They are going to build a health centre here and that's why I want to know what you think of...." This would bias the study and complicate things for any future research or programme.

Always tell the truth about your presence in the community, the purposes of the study, etc., in a manner understandable to your informants: "I want to know about illnesses of children here and how they are treated." Your relationship with informants and other people in the community should also be accompanied by the truth.

Example: The informant asks you: "What are you writing?" You answer: "What you are telling me, because I am very interested in this remedy." (You should be able to show your informant what you have been writing. When you wish to make notes you think might confuse the informant, it would be best to jot down a few key words and elaborate on them later.

13. For your interviews use a moderate tone of voice, not too loud, not too soft; be natural. Do not ask the questions in an imperative tone as this can inhibit or bother the informant. Remember that he or she is doing you a favour by participating in the study. Conversations should be in friendly tones. The interviewer should use the local language and be very familiar with local customs.

Observations

In the context of ethnographic work, observe means to examine with all of your senses an object, one or several people, a social event, etc., with the objective of describing it. In this study the anthropologist will make general observations on the community, the health resources, and the families being studied.

As indicated above, the brief notes based on your observations will be expanded in your field notes, and observations noted during the interviews will be put in parentheses. In making observations during a visit to a family you should try to

- compare what the informant does with what she says;
- see how the mother (or person in charge) prepares the child's food, concentration of milk, hygiene, quantities of food in the house, etc.;
- see how the mother (or relevant person) relates to her children (especially any sick child) - watch for signs of attention, affection, rejection, etc.;
- see who feeds the child - the mother, the child itself, other people;
- see how the child is fed - e.g., with the hand, with cup and spoon;
- note what the child eats;
- note exactly what the mother (or relevant person)
does when giving food or medicine to the child - hygiene, quantity, type of contact with the child, whether the mother encourages eating or taking of the medicine or whether the child decides how much to eat or take;
- observe the relationship between the mother and her relatives, such as the baby's father, her mother-in-law, etc.; particularly, look for who influences or makes decisions in relation to health-seeking behaviour;
- observe the general conditions of the family's life.

Observations of family members can include:

1. Use of space: This refers to distances between people and how they position themselves in relation to each other. For example, a child who is physically isolated is probably also emotionally isolated and may receive less food and medical attention.

2. Use of body, positions and gestures: Posture and gestures of people communicate a great deal - calmness, agitation, impatience, anger, tension, boredom, interest, pain, etc. For example, a person who is not calm during the interview may sit or stand in a very closed manner with the arms close to the body, perhaps moving an arm, a leg or a hand repeatedly, twisting their hands, etc.

3. Tone of voice: By the same token, tone of voice reflects a great deal about a person's emotional state.

4. Touch: This includes touching between members of the family, touching between mother arid child in particular. For example, note if the mother touches some of her children more than others.

5. Eye-to-eye contact: Eye-to-eye contact between people for this study, between mother and child - is very important. For example, if you are interviewing a mother and note that she is distracted from your discussion to look at her child, especially eye-to-eye, this indicates attention and love directed to the child. On the other hand, a mother with a child who is awake who hardly ever looks at that child during a long conversation, may not be focusing as much on her child. Are there any differences in treatment of male and female children?

The meaning of things like tone of voice and eye-to-eye contact will vary from culture to culture, so be sure that your interpretations of the behaviours you are observing are culturally appropriate.

Other Important Observations

You should always note the condition of the children younger than five years in the family. In particular, look for signs indicative of malnutrition such as: extreme thinness or swelling, illness, hair that looks brittle or has changes in colour or looks thin, hair that falls out easily, anorexia (disinterest in eating), apathy, irritability, etc. Respect your impressions. If you note that a child has changed from visit to visit and you think the child is ill, note that (use parentheses to indicate the distinction between your impression and what a relative might be telling you).

You should always observe as much as possible eating and eating habits and steps that are taken to improve health or remedy an illness state in children younger than five years. A dirty bottle on the floor or a preparation of a home remedy are examples of observations important for this research.

Vl. SELECTION, TRAINING, AND SUPERVISION OF FlELD WORKERS

Ideally, in anthropological research all data are to be collected personally by the anthropologist. This involves continuous long-term contact with one single community that is not always possible because the researcher has limited time and often has other responsibilities such as teaching and other research responsibilities. In such a situation, the assistance of field workers becomes necessary. Since anthropological data collection requires learning the art of field-work using limited instruments, careful attention should be paid to the selection, training, and supervision of any field workers involved in data collection.

Selection

1. The field workers should preferably have a master's degree in the field of anthropology or related social science. In situations where it is difficult to get master's degree holders, individuals with a bachelor's degree with previous rural field experience may be sufficient.

2. Previous experience in doing field work in rural areas should be an important criterion for selection. Willingness to live in or near the field site is a necessary prerequisite.

3. Field workers should not have any formal affiliation or responsibilities with the health services of the community at the time of the study.

4. Field workers can be either male or female. However, since much of the information is to be gathered from women, it will be essential to have female workers on the research team. However, if male workers can have easy access to the household and possess the experience indicated above, they can be effective field workers.

Training

The selected field workers need to go through a period of training whether they have had previous anthropological research experience or not. The amount of time devoted to training will be determined by previous experience and familiarity in using ethnographic techniques. It is felt that no training should last for less than a week. It should involve both classroom lecture-discussion and field-work sessions.

1. Lecture/Discussion
At the very onset the researcher should devote time to familiarizing the field workers with the subject and goal of the research project. It is very important that the field workers understand the underlying meaning for collecting a particular type of data; otherwise, the quality of data will be poor. Following the introduction and discussion of the research proposal, the researcher should explain the guidelines for household data collection. Each item in the guidelines needs to be explained clearly, and ethnographic techniques to be used will be explained in relation to specific items of the guidelines. For example, to gather information on how illness is managed, informal openended interviewing can be supplemented with case studies of particular illness in a family member. Also, the field workers need to know that, in order to get information on beliefs about health and disease, one has to start with careful observation of a particular type of behaviour and later ask the respodent why she acted the way she did. The field workers need to know how different ethnographic techniques can be used to gather information on different items of the guidelines. Both role-playing and learning through participation activities can be helpful.

2. Field Exercise
No amount of classroom discussion can do the job of actual field exercise. The field exercise can be carried out at the research site or any other similar area. The procedure to follow is to have the field workers observe the anthropologist conduct field investigations. This should give field workers the necessary cues about getting entry to a house. hold, what is needed in establishing rapport, and how to introduce themselves to the community. The anthropologist should show them how to conduct an informal interview and make field workers aware of the items and activities they are to observe. Following such a demonstration, the field workers will be asked to do a field investigation in another household and write up the field notes after returning from the field. The anthropologist should discuss the field notes with each individual worker and point out his good points and weaknesses. The initial field exercise can be general, but later the field demonstration and exercise should be carried out with the specific focus of the research project.

The field workers will be asked to keep a field diary for notes taken in the field. It is important for them to recognize that if they concentrate on writing detailed notes while in the household, they are likely to miss important events, activities, and instructions and, in some cases, might even offend the family. They should also be informed that under no circumstances should they disturb the family's daily routine. The field worker has to accommodate himself to the family's routine, and this is to be clearly understood by the field worker.

Supervision

Supervision should be a continuous process; otherwise the quality of the data collected will suffer. The procedure for supervision is as follows:

- periodic observation of the field worker in the field;
- review of field notes weekly to identify areas needing elaboration;
- frequent checks to determine whether any field procedure needs modification, and identification of areas needing attention of the researcher, e.g., if any assistance is needed in getting continuous cooperation of the households.

Supervision is needed not only to check on the quality of the data but also to give the moral support and confidence to the field workers essential for their effective performance.

Vll. DATA ANALYSIS

The process of analysing data includes the careful revision of all information collected from community study and household case studies. The following procedures and techniques will be found useful in data analysis.

Mechanics of Organizing the Data

The first activity is to organize the information as follows:

1. Files for each of the communities in the study. Include all available data, whatever the source.

2. Files for each of the households in each community. Description and characteristics of each household from chance observations as well as use of the instruments.

3. Files for individual research topics. One folder must be prepared for each research topic according to the guidelines for data collection, i.e., definition of health and illness, common illness and solutions, diet of mothers and children, etc.

In order to organize these files, the case studies of each household should be broken down into sections using headings (taking common aspects of health and illness from all cases and putting them together). Be sure to use numbers (or colours) to distinguish cases and communities.

Analytical Dimensions

As soon as the data are collected, proceed to describe the community, considering all its characteristics, then proceed to review the data from the households. Describe the data of the households with: sex, parity, age, occupation, physical conditions of the household, family composition, and structure. (The cases and communities should have code numbers for identification.)

Statistical Analysis

Complex statistical analyses will not be feasible with the limited and primarily qualitative information to be collected. Nevertheless, simple statistical tabulations will be required to describe some of the salient characteristics of the household and individual patterns of beliefs and knowledge and behaviour of individual families.

For some purposes cross-tabulation may be used to describe the health status of children of families of differing socio-economic status. To illustrate how "X-tab" may be used, suppose the researcher or researchers classified individual families into three groups on socio-economic status - low (L), middle (M), and high (H) - and children's health status into three groups also - obviously ill (01), obviously well (OW), and neither obviously ill or obviously well (N). Then, a table such as the one in example 2 may be constructed from the data.

EXAMPLE 2. Sample Cross-tabulation of Data on Family Socio-economic Status and Children's Health Status

N = 20

EXAMPLE 3. Analytical Dimensions

A. Beliefs and knowledge in health and illness
B. Health-seeking behaviour (mother, children, adults)

(a) use of indigenous healers
(b) use of health posts and centres
(c) use of visiting health workers
(d) use of pharmacy
(e) use of home remedies and therapeutic diets
(f) other

C. Generalizations
D. Comparisons between cases and communities (if any)
E. Explanations
F. Implications (conclusions)

If the data justify it, a chi-square test of significance may be applied to such a distribution. However, it should be explicitly noted that this test cannot be used appropriately when the sample size is very small or when the distribution is a variable dependent on the selections. Unless the families have been randomly selected, data based on them cannot be informed to represent the whole community.

In order to reach generalizations, look for differences and similarities in all the households, according to the analytical dimensions (see example 3). Try to identify what is salient. A further level of comparison between cases and communities may make it possible to find explanations for health-seeking behaviours. Each difference must be explored deeply (e.g., why a mother has one behaviour and another doesn't go to the health post).

The data should be analysed in such a way as to highlight findings relevant to the purpose of the study. Later, we will be trying to draw implications from the findings - to discover positive aspects of family-level evaluation as well as reasons for under-use or negative attitudes to NPHC programmes.

An extremely useful analytic approach for ethnographic data is that proposed by Spradley in his two field guides (1979 and 1980). This involves analysis of the content of information gathered into cultural themes or domains. These can than be presented in the form of taxonomies, which help to organize and interpret the findings. Examples 4 and 5 give illustrations of this for diarrhoea. Example 4 shows the way people in one community, in general, visualize diarrhoea. It is classified into different types emanating from different causes, with variations in symptoms and appropriate treatment. Example 5 classifies the possible treatments. (See Spradley 1979 and 1980 for additional details.)

EXAMPLE 4. A Taxonomy of Diarrhoea (Based on Data Recording the Perceptions in a Central American Community)

EXAMPLE 5. Taxonomy for Treatments for Diarrhoea

VIII. OUTLINE OF FINAL REPORT: FAMILY-LEVEL PERCEPTIONS OF NUTRITION AND PRIMARY HEALTH CARE PROGRAMMES

Each researcher should prepare a final report according to the following general outline.

I. Introduction and Statement of Purpose

A. General discussion of research purpose(s)
B. Importance of family-level perceptions of PHC

II. Background National and Regional Information

A. Summary of available data on PHC for nation and region/province; history of programme(s), etc.
B. Reference to relevant studies

III. Description of Study Communities

A. Reasons for specific community selection (use pseudonyms if preferred; be brief)
B. General data

1. Geographical/ecological setting
2. Demographic data/ethnicity
3. Communications (roads, etc. )
4. Socio-economic data (occupations, markets, etc.)
5. Educational facilities and attendance, general literacy rates, etc.
6. Water and sanitation facilities
7. Area map with study sites

C. Health resources

1. Endogenous

a. types and number of practitioners and facilities available (local and nearby)
b. basic role of practitioners
c. basic tenets of endogenous health care delivery system
d. Iiterature review, if available

2. Modern

a. types and number of practitioners/facilities available (local and nearby)
b. basic role of practitioners
c. history of PHC in specific communities
d. Iiterature review, if available

IV. Methodology

A. Sample selection of households in community(ies)
B. Timetable of research
C. Characteristics of researchers (sex, age, education, etc.); training and standardization of research techniques; supervision; participation in data analysis and write-up
D. Techniques and instruments utilized (Include contact time with families, any optional statistical methods, etc. )
E. Obstacles and problems, constraints (logistical, political, etc.)

V. Results
(Note: Make comparisons between communities if relevant; present factual data in this section with ample use of case study examples as illustration.)

A. Description of households and relevant individuals
B. Beliefs about health and illness (children's common illnesses and possible solutions)
C. Diets of sick children
D. Health-seeking behaviour/decision-making 1. Infants and young children 2. Mothers
E. Knowledge and utilization of PHC (Note: Where applicable, relevant data should be gathered about PHC personnel.)
F. Other aspects of health-related subjects (family planning, etc.) (Note: Respondents should be women and men from the households.)

VI. Discussion (Note: This section is primarily interpretation and implications of factual data appearing in section V.)

A. Beliefs and health-seeking behaviour
B. Perceptions of PHC - positive/negative (Stress positive attitudes expressed and note how these findings can be utilized in this programme and other PHC programmes also, as well as negative factors to be corrected.)

Vll. Summary and Conclusions Summarize relevant data specifically pertaining to PHC - include summary of recommendations and needs for additional research

VIII. References

Appendices
(Required) A. Instruments used
(Optional) B. Sample case studies
C. GIossary
D. Regional demographic data
E. Other relevant material not suitable for text

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Bialock, H. 1969. Statistics for Social Sciences. Spanish translation, FCE, Mexico.

Crane, J. G., and M. V. Angrosino. 1974. Field Projects in Anthropology: A Student Handbook. General Learning Press, Morristown, N.J., USA.

Fleiss, J. 1981. Statistical Methods for Rates and Proportions. 2nd ed. John Wiley & Sons, New York.

Ford, C. S.1964. Field Guide to the Study of Human Reproduction. Human Relations Area Files Press, New Haven, Conn., USA.

Golde, P., ed. 1970. Women in the Field: Anthropological Experiences Aldine Publishing Co., Chicago, III., USA.

Hall, E. T. 1966. The Hidden Dimension. Doubleday, New York.

Hill, A. B. 1977. Ashat Textbook of Medical Statistics UM Books, Hodder and Stoughton, London.

Naroll, R., and R. Cohen, eds. 1973. A Handbook of Method in Cultural Anthropology. Columbia University Press, New York,

Paul, B., ed. 1955. Health, Culture. and Community. Russell Sage Foundation, New York (latest printing 1981). Very highly recommended.

Pelto, P. J., and G. H. Pelto. 1978. Anthropological Research: The Structure of Inquiry. Cambridge University Press, New York, Very highly recommended.

Powdermaker, H. 1966. Stranger and Friend: The Way of an Anthropologist. W. W. Norton, New York.

Rynkiewich, M. A., and J. P. Spradley. 1976. Ethics and Anthropology: Dilemmas in Field Work. John Wiley & Sons, New York.

Spradley, J. P. 1979. The Ethnographic Interview. Holt, Rinehart & Winston, New York. Very highly recommended.
- 1980. Participant Observation. Holt, Rinehart & Winston, New York. Very highly recommended.

Wax, R. H. 1971. Doing Fieldwork: Warnings and Advice. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, III., USA,

Webb, E. J., D. T. Campbell, R. D. Schwartz, and L. Sechrest. 1966. Unobtrusive Measures: Nonreactive Research in the Social Sciences. Rand McNally College Publishing Co., Chicago, III., USA.

WORKSHOP PARTICIPANTS

Prof. Maria de la Luz Alvarez
JNTA
Casilla 15 138
Santiago 11, Chile

Manuel P. Diaz
Institute of Philippine Culture
Ateneo de Manila University
PO Box 154
Manila, Philippines

Dr. Peter Fajans
UNICEF Indonesia
Box 202/JKT
Jakarta, Indonesia 20002

Dr. Susanna Graham-Jones
Save the Children Fund
PO Box 992
Kathmandu, Nepal

Dr. Pamela A. Hunte
UNICEF
PO Box 284
Quetta, Pakistan

Elena Hurtado
INCAP
Apartado Postal 1188
Guatemala City, Guatemala

Dr. Najma Rizvi
International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research
PO Box 128
Dhaka, Bangladesh

Prof. Kong-kyun Ro
Department of Management Science
Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology
Cheonrvan-ri PO Box 150
Seoul 131, Korea

Prof. María Romero
Apartado Aereo 039372
Bogota D.E., Colombia

Dr. Nevin Scrimshaw
Director
Food, Nutrition, and Poverty Programme
United Nations University
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
MIT 20A-201
Cambridge, Mass. 02139, USA

Prof. Susan Scrimshaw
School of Public Health
University of California
Los Angeles, Calif. 90024, USA

Farhat Sultana
UNICEF
PO Box 284
Quetta, Pakistan

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