UNITED NATIONS UNIVERSITY SYMPOSIUM ON
WOMEN AND MAINSTREAMING
Introduction
A UNU Symposium on Women and Mainstreaming was held at the International Conference Hall of the United Nations University Headquarters in Tokyo in June 1996. The primary purpose of the Symposium was to bring together scholars and practitioners to discuss gender mainstreaming, and to explore the ways and means to facilitate the integration of gender concerns in politics, economics and development, society, and human rights. The outcome of the dialogue is intended to assist in the identification of possible research areas and directions that could be undertaken by the University in its future programmes.
The one-day event was divided into the following five sessions: (1) Mainstreaming Women's Issues; (2) Gender in Politics; (3) Gender in the Economy; (4) Gender in Society; and (5) Women and Human Rights.
This report is intended to provide a brief summary of the major themes and issues of discussion. The concluding section includes an overview of some of the initiatives related to gender-related issues which have been undertaken recently by the United Nations and its agencies. It also includes a list of possible research questions and issue areas for consideration in the development of a research agenda on women and mainstreaming.
A Research Agenda for Women: Mainstreaming Women's Issues
Mainstreaming women's issues involves integrating women's concerns and needs into the dominant tendencies of diverse areas such political processes and participation, economic policy-making, development, law-making, education, health, conflict prevention and resolution, refugee policies, mass media, the management of the environment and natural resources, etc.
The concept of mainstreaming is complex and requires collective thinking. What are the specific problems confronting women? Any attempt to isolate problems facing women from those facing men presents vast challenges. What is clear is that the individual capacity to solve problems is not necessarily available to the millions of women living in bad conditions. Therefore, the framework of mainstreaming presents one way to devise potential solutions.
In order to effectively implement mainstreaming policies, a clear definition of a "gender perspective" is required. An examination of the documents emanating from the 1985 Nairobi Conference on Women, which set up the strategies that led to the Beijing Conference ten years later, reveals that the term "gender" barely appears. At that point in time, the concern was with "women" or "sex," as defined in the biological sense. It became evident during the period from Nairobi to Beijing that there was a need to go beyond the basic biological differences between men and women.
Gender refers to the socially constructed roles played by women and men that are assigned to them on the basis of their sex. It is a means of examining similarities and differences between women and men without a direct reference to biology, but rather to expected behavior patterns and their cultural reinforcements. Since gender relates to the roles of individuals, it implies the possibility for change and, as such, these roles can be subject to public policy.
In applying a gender perspective a series of steps can be identified. The first step is to define issues where gender differences can be observed. Second, is to observe and diagnose the differences between men and women. The third step is to confirm that these differences are in fact based on differences in sex. The final step in applying a gender perspective is to examine the function of gender roles during processes of change and to identify obstacles. Although there are many assumptions that remain to be proven or explained, a gender perspective can be applied to the way we view the economy, politics, and society. This should provide guidance in the formulation of a research agenda on gender mainstreaming.
Two dominant schools-of-thought seek to address how the women's agenda should be framed. One is a perspective emanating basically from the countries of the North which asserts that women need more integration, greater visibility, increased participation, and additional resources. An alternate viewpoint, which emanates primarily from the South, argues that it is not the lack of integration, but the exploitation and unequal conditions into which women are being integrated that have caused gender inequalities, and that their greater integration in the prevailing development strategies will only exacerbate these inequalities.
Mainstreaming involves complex issues affecting every stage of the organization of human society. Solutions should not be devised only on the basis of the formulation of new standards, enacting new resolutions, and creating new institutions. To be realistic, solutions should be holistic in nature, ensuring sustainability, diversity, and respect for the heterogeneous characteristics of human societies, as well as strengthening the participation of women. We should be sure to avoid the assumption that an emphasis on mainstreaming women's issues will automatically open the hierarchical and linear organizational structures in any given society and provide opportunities for women.
The Platform for Action adopted at the Beijing Conference on Women in 1995 was designed to serve as a mainstreaming document. When we ask what the research priorities should be beyond Beijing, it is important that we shift away from looking at women as a dependent variable. The Beijing Platform has contributed to the essential understanding that women should be viewed as fundamental factors in any attempt to understand society, economics, and politics. The next tasks are to implement this platform and mobilize research for it within the context of mainstreaming.
Gender in Politics
Mainstreaming implies more than just ensuring equal numbers of women and men in current initiatives and structures. It involves changing policies and institutions so that they actively promote gender equality. Being part of the mainstream means having equal access to resources, socially valued goods, opportunities and rewards. It also implies equal participation in influencing what is valued and in shaping policy directions.
Certain prejudices and customs persist which limit the action of women in public life and in areas that society has arbitrarily identified as being appropriate for the participation of women. Even though we are witnessing more women holding public offices, we still find that many of them are given secondary positions and are not assigned key responsibilities and leadership roles.
In terms of mainstreaming a gender perspective, one of the primary tasks is to ensure an equality in the participation of power and decisionmaking between women and men. It is an assumption that in democratic societies, which ideally involve the equal participation of men and women, the concerns of both women and men will be taken into account in public decision-making. However, this clearly is not the case. Although there are more women voters than men, the participation of men in politics is significantly higher. We need to have a clearer understanding of why this is the case.
Mainstreaming is closely connected to channels of participation, whether it is on an individual basis, or through governments, international institutions, academic institutes, community-based organizations, NGOs, etc. It is important to note that there has been very little evaluation on the impact of participation by women in political processes, or on how women participate as actors in political processes. This is especially relevant because it is a question of credibility among women themselves. Women are not always ready to give their vote to women, or to support women's criteria in politics. The participation of women in political processes also requires the participation of men with open minds who are not reluctant to address issues associated equality. In this way, participation is directly related to the basic question of education. Who is going to assume the lead in transmitting values and assuming responsibilities in educational processes?
There is at present little opportunity for women to play a role in various phases of the peace process -- humanitarian relief, mediation, preventive action, peacemaking, peacekeeping, and post-conflict peace-building. Do women have different styles and approaches to mediation and negotiation? What steps can be undertaken to increase the participation of women as peace negotiators and conflict managers?
It is interesting to note that three of the largest United Nations agencies that deal with humanitarian relief -- the High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), the World Food Programme, and the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) -- are all headed by women. Upon undertaking their management responsibilities, these women stated that they would work to achieve a gender balance at the management-level, and they all have accomplished this task.
How did they achieve gender parity within their respective organizations? Are their differences between men and women in leadership roles in terms of performance and effectiveness?
The concept of mainstreaming women's issues is not the same in all parts of the world. The issues can differ in terms of national contexts, economic, social, political, and cultural structures, institutions, traditions, and existing gender relations. In a nation where women's issues are not even rhetorically on the agenda, it is difficult to mainstream. As such, cross cultural perspectives of gender and mainstreaming should be further studied to increase our understanding of existing cultural diversities. At the same time, in order for the women's agenda to gain universal recognition, mainstreaming also must be analyzed in an international context. For example, there is a need to examine international development trends in an attempt to learn how women's needs, conditions, and positions in society are being affected. How are gender relations changing to favor or disfavor women's conditions and positions?
The marginalization of women throughout history has been connected to gender relations and male-dominated structures and institutions in society. Therefore, for women's issues to be mainstreamed, perhaps one of the most important tasks is to analyze how the marginalization of women has taken place, why it continues, and how it should be addressed. All of the recently held United Nations world conferences have concluded that there is a tremendous gap between internationally recognized norms and standards for human development and reality. The same conferences have also concluded that these gaps are widening. Why is this occurring and how can mainstreaming serve to remedy these gaps and address the issue of marginalization?
Gender in the Economy
Gender as an element of the economy is an old reality. The economic process is rooted in the division of labor and, in turn, this artificial division results from the tasks traditionally assigned to men and women on the basis of their productive and reproductive roles, skills, learning abilities, and how resources and rewards have been distributed. Gender analysis highlights certain fixed points, such as the division of labor. The links between women's productivity and reproductive roles have long been subjects of concern to scholars from many disciplines. They are only now being introduced as factors of analysis in development planning and in the economic process. Gender analysis examines the links between these divisions and their different local gender-specific effects.
In almost all parts of the world, the women's share in the labor force has been continuously rising and, in nearly all countries, women increasingly are working outside of their homes. At the same time, the number of women living in impoverished conditions is also on the rise. What are some of the factors or obstacles impeding the economic progress of women?
A good part of gender and development research has been based on the presumption that we need to look at the impact of structural adjustment on women. We are witnessing a shift in the proportion of women in the economically active population. In most regions, particularly in Asia and Latin America, the proportion of women in the labor market is rapidly increasing. In fact, there is a clear correlation between increasing proportions of women in the labor market and high economic growth rates. What does this mean? One can assume that more women in the labor force have helped to produce higher growth. However, the classical economic viewpoint purports that growth determines employment. It is clear that women are changing the labor force and the economy is different as a result. Research that examines the role of women in contributing to economic growth therefore should be a priority.
There is an absence or poor representation of women in economic decisionmaking, including the formulation of financial, monetary, commercial, and other economic policies, as well as tax systems. Gender inequality in wages still persists. One of the most central issues relating to the wage gap between male and female workers is occupational segregation by sex. In many countries, female workers have been concentrated in a small cluster of traditionally female occupations, which are typically lower wage jobs. Moreover, in many countries women constitute the majority of workers in non-standard, multiple part-time, contract, or home-based employment. Poor working conditions are endangering the safety and health of women workers. There is discrimination in recruitment, hiring, placement, remuneration, promotion, transfer, etc. In addition, women often are confronted with difficulties in harmonizing work and family responsibilities due to a lack of or insufficient services, such as appropriate and affordable childcare. Inflexible working hours and working conditions, the lack of a system for leave in order to care for sick or elderly family members, and shortages of affordable or adequate housing near the workplace represent additional difficulties.
What countermeasures can be undertaken to help overcome some of these obstacles? An obvious first step is to ensure that a gender perspective is integrated into economic policies, programmes, and structures. Insufficient attention to gender analysis would mean that women's concerns and contributions would remain ignored in economic structures, even in economics as an academic discipline, and in economic and social infrastructures, taxation, social security systems, as well as in families and households. It is important that when new policies are formulated, the impact of such policies on women and men are studied beforehand to ensure gender equity. It is necessary to devise mechanisms and take positive action to enable women to gain access to full and equal participation in the formulation of economic policies and definitions of economic structures. It is also necessary to conduct reviews of national income tax and inheritance tax policies, and social security systems to eliminate any existing bias against women. Greater efforts should be made to support financial institutions that serve low income, small and microscale women entrepreneurs and producers in both formal and informal sectors. There is a need to review laws, rules, and procedures of national and international financial institutions to ensure that they provide services to women and men on an equal basis. It necessary to undertake legislation and administrative reforms to give women equal rights to economic resources, including access to ownership and control over land and other properties, credit, inheritances, natural resources and appropriate new technologies. Lastly, there is an urgent need to expand opportunities for women in education and training in order to help them realize economic empowerment.
Since the 1980s, development has been a highly contradictory process. While there is a heightened advocacy and awareness of gender issues, we are witnessing, at the same time, a growing poverty of the world's women. This situation is closely linked to the process of globalization. The largest 50 per cent of the world's population are women, and women constitute the majority of the world's poor -- an estimated 70 per cent. In addition, women and young children make up an estimated 80 per cent of the world's 24 million internally displaced and 20 million refugees. One can assume that the poor, the internally displaced, and refugees belong to the sectors of society that are increasingly becoming marginalized.
The effects of globalization on women are at least twofold. First, those women belonging to the "new civilization," which is a very reduced percentage of the women population, have much to gain in terms of improved education, well-paid and challenging work opportunities, and improved access to information. In short, they have access to the conditions necessary, which is not the same as sufficient, to develop their human potential. For these women, the mainstreaming of women's issues is relevant because in their societies or within sectors of their societies, women's issues are on the agenda, which implies that there is a basis to begin mainstreaming these issues. However, it does not mean that it is an easy process or that it will occur automatically. Second, poor women, or marginalized women, both in industrialized and developing societies, are facing the challenges associated with lifting their sectors out of the marginalization process. In addition to discussing how to mainstream and how to mainstream through research, we need to examine the consequences of mainstreaming women's issues into the highly contradictory process of globalization.
In an era of increasing globalization, not everyone can benefit from new technological achievements. There is a need for increasing the collection of information and research on matters which will help to provide people with the opportunity to enjoy the benefits of technology and to address specifically the challenges facing vulnerable groups, including impoverished women. How we solve the potential problems of the future requires a greater understanding of the objectives we are trying to achieve. What resources are available to accomplish our objectives? What activities are priority areas? The obstacles are clear, and yet the ways in which governments, decision makers, and institutions should address these obstacles remain uncertain.
Gender in Society
If we are going to mainstream a given area, we should identify what the institutions are in this area. If we are looking at society, we know that the main unit of analysis is roles, and that the main social unit is the household. It therefore follows that we should focus on the mainstream that involves roles, the household, and the family, which are supported by cultural institutions and values. When dealing with an analysis of gender and society, we need to address the fundamental problems of social change. Since both men and women play social roles in the household and in the community, is important to focus attention not only on women, but also on men and their evolving role as a complement to changes taking place. The Beijing Platform discusses the sharing of domestic and family responsibilities, which has been perceived to be a prerequisite for the entry of women into the economy. We need to deal with the question of valuing unremunerated work and, in this context, we should look not only at the unremunerated work of women, but the division of unremunerated roles between men and women.
The globalization of the economy, particularly in the export-driven sector, is leading to women becoming the employees of choice, at least as workers, although it is not yet reflected at the management level. What impact is this development having on men? If men are no longer able to define their identity in terms of gender-based roles played in society, politics and the economy, how does this impact their identity? This represents the other side of the gender coin, and is an area that merits further study since it has consequences for society as a whole.
In the social arena, women have always been the dependent variable. The impact of changes in the economy on social structure is certainly important. On the other hand, the impact of changes in the social structure on the economy is equally important. An area that deserves further research is the relationship between women and education. In many countries, at the primary and secondary levels of education, gender parity has been achieved. However, at the third level, more women are graduating from universities than men in an increasing number of societies. Some statistics have shown that education has a pronounced effect on women's abilities in politics and in the economy twenty years later. Thus, we are seeing a lagged effect of investment in the education of children today. The impact of education on adult women, however, remains virtually unexplored and presents an important area for study.
Gender is an issue that is of major concern to all cultures. Every culture not only offers its children an account of the existence of the two genders and their multiple roles, according to kinship, sexuality, work, marriage and age, but also provides them with broad guidance on how to handle the relationships between them. There can be no substitute for this kind of guidance transmitted to each individual through a body of attitudes, narratives, images and needs. The emphasis on gender as a relational concept has opened up possibilities for looking at the full range of social and cultural institutions, which reproduce gender hierarchies and gender-based inequalities.
Women and Human Rights
The first three world conferences on women, which were held in Mexico (1975), Copenhagen (1980), and Nairobi (1985) primarily focused on development. In contrast, one of the major areas of concern taken up at the Beijing Conference was human rights -- civil, cultural, economic, political, and social, including the right to development. Prior to Beijing, the 1993 Vienna World Conference on Human Rights discussed issues involving women and human rights. At this meeting the Vienna Action Plan and Declaration were adopted. These documents stated that the human rights of women and girls are indispensable, indivisible, and universal.
Despite measures which have been undertaken to date, violations of women's rights continue. There is an urgent need to continue the dialogue on women's human rights and look for ways to prevent further violations. Efforts are needed to integrate the equal status and the human rights of all women and girls into the mainstream of the United Nations system-wide activities. Humans rights issues should be addressed regularly and systematically throughout relevant bodies and mechanisms. This will require enhanced coordination between various bodies within the UN system that deal with areas relating, either directly or indirectly, to women and human rights. Another priority is to call attention to the recommendations that governments agreed to in the Beijing Platform, and ensure that they implement actions discussed in the Platform.
Today more countries are parties to the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women than ever before. However, flagrant violations persist in some countries, even when these countries are parties to the Convention. The issue of compliance is an important one. How can we get governments who have signed the treaty to adhere to the international norms and standards set forth in the Convention. How can non-parties be encouraged to ratify the Convention?
A recent important development concerning the Convention is the proposed establishment of an optional protocol which would provide individuals with the right to petition the Committee on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women in the event that they believe that their rights have been abused and if they have not been able to get redress in their own countries. So far, many governments have indicated a willingness to see such a protocol come into place. Although discussions on this matter are still in the preliminary stages, it nevertheless represents an encouraging innovation.
The Commission on the Status of Women has developed a communications mechanism whereby the Commission can receive information on violations. The Commission examines these communications in closed and confidential sessions. It is not an entirely effective process since the Commission does not have the power to take concrete measures to prevent violations and abuses. This notwithstanding, it still represents an important development which warrants further study. Can the Commission's procedure for the receipt of communications be strengthened in the future?
In many countries women lack awareness about their existing legal rights. In this connection, efforts should be undertaken to improve legal literacy among women in an attempt to increase their knowledge about their rights and inform them of possible ways to seek legal recourse against violations of their rights.
Reproductive rights are an important aspect of women's human rights. This represents a complex issue with varying viewpoints. Women's rights involving reproduction cannot be ensured or guaranteed in certain cultures and countries. Variations in the definition of terms further complicate the issue. For example, the notion of a "couple" or a "family" can mean different things in different countries and cultures. Is there a way to reach general agreement on the definitions of terms and concepts? Should human rights transcend national borders in all instances?
Acts of violence against women -- whether it is public or private, physical, psychological, or sexual -- are violations against the rights of women. Because of the structure of discrimination against women, there exists such violence. At the same time, the act of being violent towards women is an obstacle to the independence and empowerment of women.
The Beijing Platform reaffirmed that rape in the conduct of armed conflict constitutes a war crime and under certain circumstances it constitutes a crime against humanity as defined in the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide. What can be done to strengthen compliance with norms and standards found in international humanitarian law and international human rights instruments to prevent all acts of violence against women in situations of emergencies, armed conflicts, and other conflicts?
Conclusion
The Beijing Platform calls for mainstreaming a gender perspective in all policies and programmes of the United Nations system. This was reinforced at the Fiftieth Session of the United Nations General Assembly and at the Fortieth Session of the Commission on the Status of Women. During the meetings of the Commission, mainstreaming was a constant theme throughout all of the discussions, and decisions were taken with respect to mainstreaming and human rights, and mainstreaming and the eradication of poverty. Mainstreaming throughout the United Nations system itself has been reflected in the system-wide medium-term plan, which was adopted for the period 1996 to 2001.
Many of the departments and agencies of the United Nations system have initiated programmes relating specifically to gender-related issues. For example, significant accomplishments have been made in the development of statistical indicators on gender and the importance of close collaboration between the UN Statistics Division (UNSD) and the international organizations most directly concerned with women's issues.
In addition to the work of UNSD, a number of entities are collecting statistics disaggregated by sex in their areas of specialization, such as the UN Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO) on women in industry, the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) on women in the agricultural sector, forest and fisheries, the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) on women and education, the International Labor Organization (ILO) in the area of employment, and the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) on children. The UN Development Program (UNDP) maintains the gender empowerment measure (GEM) which established in the 1995 Human Development Report, and the World Health Organization (WHO) is developing a data base on violence against women. FAO, ILO and UNDP have taken the lead to develop a socio-economic and gender analysis (SEAGA) programme as a collaborative effort with multilateral and bilateral agencies, NGOs, and national academic institutions. This includes a conceptual framework, methodologies, materials, and tools for information and training. The Office of the UN High Commission for Refugees (UNHCR) and UNICEF have been engaged in extensive gender training using gender awareness, analysis and gender planning.
One of the projects undertaken by the UN International Research and Training Institute for the Advancement of Women (INSTRAW) involves an analysis of the impact of credit on women living in informal sectors. This project seeks to provide recommendations to help women find solutions to daily problems, as well as to suggest income-generating activities that offer sustainable ways to solve their problems. Another element of INSTRAW's work is to better understand the obstacles to development that women face. In this connection, INSTRAW is carrying out a statistical analysis on how women are distributing their time and earnings, not necessarily in monetary terms, but in social terms. How much they contribute to their own individual well-being and to the well-being of their families and society as a whole could be seen as contributions to the progress of society.
The Division for the Advancement of Women (DAW), the United Nations Development Fund for Women (UNIFEM), and INSTRAW recently launched a new website. The site is intended to serve as a gateway to UN information on women worldwide and acts as a forum for issues in the follow-up of the Beijing Conference.
The United Nations University's work in this area has attempted to combine an academic approach that favors theory with a more practical and policy-oriented approach that is characteristic of international development organizations. The UNU World Institute on Development Economics Research (UNU/WIDER) in Helsinki, undertook a three-year programme of research which examined issues such as gender and fundamentalisms, gender and economic transitions, and the links between patriarchy and development. In addition, the UNU Institute for New Technologies (UNU/INTECH) in Maastricht initiated a research programme on women and the impact of technology.
Although progress has been made in the recent past in mainstreaming a gender perspective into many of the policies and programmes of the United Nations system, a substantial amount of work still remains to be done. The following section proposes some research questions and issue areas for consideration in the development of a research agenda on women and mainstreaming.
Within the United Nations, efforts to achieve gender parity are gradually improving. For example, an overall female staff representation of 35 per cent in posts subject to geographical distribution has been achieved. However, in order to reach the twin targets of 25 per cent women in all senior positions and complete gender equality of 50 per cent women in the Secretariat by the year 2000, much more work remains to be done. What steps can be taken to achieve these goals?
How can we ensure that a gender mainstreaming policy is consistently implemented in all departments and organizations of the UN system at all levels, in keeping with the Beijing Platform for Action?
Does the UN system have the institutional capacity to undergo the necessary transformations implied by gender mainstreaming?
What is the role of gender units and focal points for mainstreaming a gender perspective in all policies and programmes of the United Nations? What can be done to improve communication and coordination among the gender focal points throughout the system, including at the field level?
How can an accountability system for mainstreaming, including resource allocation for mainstreaming efforts and tools for monitoring performance, be constructed and implemented? What can be done to increase the financial support for gender mainstreaming efforts?
What lessons have been learned from past and current mainstreaming experiences? This question should be looked at from both cross-cultural and global perspectives.
Can comparative advantages of specific departments and agencies of the United Nations be identified in an effort to avoid duplication and overlapping in the system's activities on gender issues and mainstreaming?
How can we develop and improve statistics and indicators, including time-use, gender-sensitive poverty measurements, on issues relating to human rights, reproductive rights, violence against women, etc.?
What steps can be taken to establish a wider range of collaborative partners between the UN system and other entities such as nongovernmental organizations and academic institutions in the area of gender mainstreaming?
What can be done to enhance the role of women in political and security processes, including in decision-making roles, in preventing, building and ensuring peace, and in emergency relief efforts? How can we apply a gender perspective to preventive diplomacy, peacemaking, peacekeeping, and post-conflict peace building? What measures can be undertaken to enable women to contribute to all facets of the peace process?
How can the human rights of women in emergency situations and situations of armed conflict be better protected? What can be done to strengthen compliance with norms and standards set forth in international humanitarian law and international human rights instruments to prevent all acts of violence against women in situations of emergencies, armed conflicts, and other conflicts?
What are the major questions stemming from the various United Nations global conferences held since 1992 relating to women? What are the critical priorities and proposed recommendations? Have these recommendations been put into practice? What intergovernmental actions have been carried out since Beijing to mainstream a gender perspective system wide? What can be done to strengthen national mechanisms for the advancement of women and to encourage the implementation of the Beijing Platform?
What impact has the process of globalization had on women, including aspects which relate to women and trade, technological changes, international work patterns, employment, and female migration? How can mainstreaming serve to remedy the increasing marginalization of women? What policies and programmes should be pursued in an effort to enable women to adjust to future challenges associated with globalization?
How are social changes impacting the identities of men and women and their gender based roles?