KEY WORDS: Geothermal, training, Iceland, United Nations University, international co-operation

ABSTRACT

The Geothermal Training Programme of the United Nations University (UNU) has operated in Iceland since 1979 with six months annual courses for professionals from developing countries. Candidates must have a minimum of one year practical experience in geothermal work in their home countries prior to the training. Specialized training is offered in geological exploration, borehole geology, geophysical exploration, borehole geophysics, reservoir engineering, chemistry of thermal fluids, environmental studies, geothermal utilization, and drilling technology. Each trainee attends only one specialized course. The training is conducted in English. The trademark of the training is to give university graduates engaged in geothermal work very intensive on-the-job training in their chosen fields of specialization. The trainees work side by side with professionals of Orkustofnun, an agency actively working on most aspects of geothermal research, exploration, and development. The training is tailor-made for the individual and the needs of his institution/country. The aim is to assist developing countries with significant geothermal potential to build up groups of specialists that cover most aspects of geothermal exploration and development. Priority is given to candidates from institutions where geothermal work is already under way. All candidates are selected by private interviews. Candidates from developing countries and some Central and Eastern European countries receive scholarships (covering tuition fees, per diem and international travel) financed by the Government of Iceland and the UNU. Upon completion of their training the participants receive a UNU Certificate. During 1979-1998, 213 scientists and engineers from 35 countries have completed the 6 month courses, and over 70 have received shorter training (2 weeks to 4 months).

1. INTRODUCTION

The Geothermal Training Programme of the United Nations University (UNU) was established in Iceland in 1979, when Orkustofnun (the National Energy Authority) became an Associated Institution of the UNU. Since then, a group of scientists and engineers from energy agencies and research organizations, and in a few instances universities in the developing countries, have come to Iceland every spring to spend six months in highly specialized studies, research, and on the job training in geothermal science and engineering. All of them are university graduates with practical experience in geothermal work in their home countries. The training is tailor-made to the individual and the needs of his institution/country. In all, 213 participants from 35 countries completed the six month course during 1979-1998. They have come from Asia 45%, Africa 26%, Latin America 15% and Central & Eastern Europe 14%. Table 1 shows the number of participants per country and the specialized courses they have taken.

The Training Programme operates within the Orkustofnun, the National Energy Authority (NEA) of Iceland. It is academically governed by a Studies Board, which is composed of experts responsible for each of the eight specialized courses that are offered, and a chairman who is the director of the Training Programme. The present members of the Studies Board are Dr. Kristjan Saemundsson (Geological Exploration), Dr. Hjalti Franzson (Borehole Geology), Dr. Knutur Arnason (Geophysical Exploration), Dr. Benedikt Steingrimsson (Borehole Geophysics), Dr. Halldor Armannsson (Environmental Studies) and Mr. Sverrir Thorhallsson (Drilling Technology) from Orkustofnun, Prof. Stefan Arnorsson (Chemistry of Thermal Fluids) and Prof. Valdimar K. Jonsson (Geothermal Utilization) from the University of Iceland, and Dr. Snorri Pall Kjaran (Reservoir Engineering) from the Vatnaskil Consulting Engineers Ltd. Dr. Ingvar Birgir Fridleifsson has been the director of the Training Programme from the beginning except for one training season in 1981 when Dr. Hjalti Franzson served as director, and three training seasons in 1986-1988 when Dr. Jon Steinar Gudmundsson served as director. Mr. Ludvik S. Georgsson has been the deputy-director since 1990.

TABLE 1: Fellows of the UNU Geothermal Training Programme 1979-1998

Country	Geological exploration	Borehole geology	Geophysic. exploration	Borehole geophys.	Reservoir engineer.	Chemistry of therm. fluids	Environm. studies	Geotherm. utilization	Drilling technology	Total
Algeria	1					1		1		3
Bulgaria				1	2	2				5
Burundi	1									1
China		3	1	2	11	10		9	1	37
Costa Rica	1	1	2		1			1		6
Djibouti		1								1
Egypt		1			1	1				3
El Salvad.	1	1	1	2	4	1	1	1	3	15
Eritrea			1							1
Ethiopia		2	1	1	3	3		1	1	12
Greece			1					2		3
Guatemala		1				1				2
Honduras		1	1							2
Indonesia		3	3	2	3					11
Iran	1	1	1					1		4
Jordan				1	1					2
Kenya	1	4	7		3	4	3	1	2	25
Lithuania								1		1
Macedonia						1				1
Mexico	1		1		2					4
Nepal						1		1		2
Nicaragua					3	1				4
Pakistan	1	1			1	1				4
Philippines		3	4	4	7	5		3		26
Poland		1			3					4
Romania								5		5
Russia				1						1
Serbia				1	1	1				3
Slovakia				1	1					2
Tanzania	1									1
Thailand		1		2		1		1		5
Tunisia								3		3
Turkey		1			1	2		1		5
Uganda	2	1	1			1				5
Vietnam			1		1	1			1	4
Total	11	27	26	18	49	38	4	32	8	213

2. THE TRAINING

The approximate time schedule of the Training Programme is shown in Table 2. The duration is 6 months. In general, all participants are expected to attend an introductory lecture course that lasts 4-5 weeks (three lectures and a practical each day). The aim of the lecture course is to provide a background knowledge on most aspects of geothermal energy resources and technology, and to generate an appreciation for the interrelationship between the various disciplines necessary in geothermal projects from the initial exploration to the stages of implementation and utilization. Participants have to take two written tests during the introductory lecture course. The lecture course is followed by practical training in a specialized field and the execution of a research project that is concluded with an extensive research project report. Study tours are arranged to all the main geothermal fields under exploration and utilization in Iceland.

UNU GEOTHERMAL TRAINING PROGRAMME IN ICELAND

All participants receive training in using PC-computers for word processing, interpretation of data as well as in using the Internet. Each of them is provided with a personal PC during their training in Iceland. Experience has shown that most trainees have access to PC-computers at home, and they can take their diskettes home and continue the work there. Thus there has been a considerable transfer of computer technology from Reykjavik to geothermal institutions in the developing countries. Participants having access to large computers at home are allowed to work on the main frame computer at Orkustofnun (NEA). All the participants are trained in using the Internet and encouraged to do so. In November 1998, some 70 former UNU Fellows are listed in the e-mail directory of the Geothermal Training Programme. An updated directory is sent out twice per year to all alumni of the Programme.

The main emphasis of the training is to provide the participants with sufficient understanding and practical experience to permit the independent execution of projects within a selected discipline in their home countries. Nine specialized lines of training are offered (Table 2). Each participant is meant to follow only one line of training, but within each line there is considerable flexibility. A significant part of the practical training is done in connection with the research projects of the Fellows. In many cases the participants bring with them data from geothermal projects in their home countries, but sometimes the research projects are integrated with geothermal exploration or utilization projects that are in progress in Iceland at the time of training. The project topic is always selected with respect to the conditions of the home country of the participant. Many of the project reports are written in such a way that they serve as manuals for performing certain measurements or interpretations dealt with in respective reports. All the project reports are published by the Training Programme. Since 1994, the reports have been published in the annual book "Geothermal Training in Iceland" which has an international publishing code (ISBN 9979). Copies can be obtained upon request. The reports are mailed regularly to former UNU Fellows and many of the leading geothermal institutions in the developing countries. The titles of the reports from 1979-1997 will shortly be listed on the home page of the Geothermal Training Programme (www/ os.is).

3. THE SPECIALIZED COURSES

The geological exploration course offers practical training in basic geological mapping, which is commonly the first step in the geothermal exploration of an area. Participants analyze the geological structure of an area with regard to siting drill holes, both thermal gradient and production wells. Many of the participants have also been trained in mapping surface geothermal manifestations, including shallow temperature surveys and measurement of flow rates of springs. The field work is commonly conducted both in active geothermal and volcanic areas and in deeply eroded areas where the roots of extinct volcanoes and hydrothermal systems can be inspected. Participants should have a degree in geology.

The borehole geology course gives training in making geological logs, analyses of drill cuttings and cores, and, in some cases, fluid inclusions. The identification of alteration minerals (microscope and x-ray diffraction) and the interpretation of the alteration mineralogy forms an integral part of the course. Many of the participants receive training in collecting and interpreting data on aquifers and in making geological models of geothermal reservoirs based on their own data and data from other disciplines. Participants should have a degree in geology.

The geophysical exploration course is for practical training in conducting geophysical surveys of geothermal areas and/or interpretation of such data. The essentials of heat flow surveys, magnetic and gravity surveys, as well as resistivity depth soundings and profiling are covered. During the latter half of the training a selection can be made between further specialization in electrical surveys (Schlumberger, dipole, head-on profiling, TEM, MT, AMT, SP), magnetic surveys and gravity surveys. Emphasis is laid on the application of computers in the interpretation of geophysical data. Participants should have a degree in physics, geophysics or engineering.

The course in borehole geophysics covers the essentials of geophysical measurements in boreholes used for geothermal investigations, with the main emphasis on temperature and pressure measurements, but including lithology logs such as electrical resistivity, caliper, porosity and density logs, and well completion logs such as CCL, CBL, inclination and spinner logs. The participants undertake well measurements, but most of the time is devoted to the interpretation of logging data. Participants should have a degree in physics, geophysics or engineering.

The reservoir engineering course covers the methodology needed to obtain information on the hydrological characteristics of geothermal reservoirs and to forecast the long term response of the reservoirs to exploitation. Both surface and downhole measurements are considered and the interpretation of flow tests of wells, injection tests and interference tests. It is also possible to specialize in production engineering of geothermal fields. The course requires a sound background in mathematics. Participants should have a degree in engineering, physics, geophysics, mathematics or hydrogeology.

The environmental studies course covers environmental impact assessments (EIA), laws and policies, the planning and execution of EIA projects and environmental auditing. Aspects of reservoir engineering and geothermal chemistry are treated, including sampling and analytical methods, injection and tracer studies, scaling and corrosion along with methods of interpretation. Physical methods of monitoring geothermal areas such as aerial thermography, refraction measurements, seismic monitoring and gravity and levelling methods for subsidence are studied. Biological impact is considered in some detail as well as the management of wastes, toxic chemicals, air pollution and noise. Occupational health and safety are introduced and abatement methods such as H2S abatement and ground revegetation feature too. As a bacground, energy statistics and forecasts are considered and case histories of exploration and environmental impact studies introduced. The projects are from wide-ranging disciplines as are the Fellows themselves who are required to have a degree in science or engineering. This course was officially opened in 1998.

The course on chemistry of thermal fluids gives an insight into the role of thermal fluid chemistry in geothermal exploration and exploitation, including sampling, analysis of major constituents and the interpretation of results. Much emphasis is placed on the application of chemical thermometers and the calculation of mixing models. Environmental aspects of the thermal fluids are also considered. The participants need a solid background in chemistry. They should have a degree in chemistry, geochemistry or chemical engineering.

The course in geothermal utilization deals with the civil, mechanical and chemical engineering aspects of geothermal fluids in pipes, equipment and plants. The feasibility of projects and environmental factors are also considered. Due to the wide spectrum covered by geothermal engineering, the participants have to be very selective in their specialization. Most of the participants specialize in the design and/or feasibility studies of district heating systems and/or in the application of geothermal steam and water in industry. One specialization is the selection, instalment and operation of downhole pumps in geothermal wells. Participants should have a degree in engineering.

The course in drilling technology provides engineers with the information and on-site training necessary to prepare them for the work of drilling engineers or supervisors. The course is thus training in the planning and supervision of drilling and not in the task of drilling itself. The course deals with the selection of drilling equipment, the design of wells and casing programs, as well as cementing techniques. The cleaning and repairs of production wells is also covered. Participants should have a degree in engineering.

4. TEACHING MATERIAL

Most of the teaching is done by tutorials and practical work where the teacher works with two or three trainees and use is made of available textbooks and articles in journals as appropriate. In some instances, however, a special effort has been required to compile text material and manuals as teaching material for the training. Most of this work has been done by the regular teachers of the Training Programme, who are mostly staff members of Orkustofnun (the National Energy Authority) and the University of Iceland. Some texts have also been written by visiting scholars from other countries. Some of the teaching material has been published in reports, and is available from the Training Programme. Examples include the texts on hydrogeology (Sigurdsson, 1987), geophysical exploration (Hersir and Björnsson, 1991), geothermal logging (Stefansson and Steingrimsson, 1981), reservoir engineering (Kjaran and Eliasson, 1983), geothermal reservoir physics (Bödvarsson, 1987), geothermal district heating (Karlsson, 1982), direct use of geothermal energy (Lund, 1987; Lund, 1996), and one dimensional inversion of Schlumberger resistivity soundings (Arnason and Hersir, 1988). This last report contains the description of a computer program, user's guide and a diskette for a PC-computer. A few of the teaching texts are already into their second and third editions.

One guest lecturer with an international reputation is invited every year as a UNU Visiting Lecturer to give a lecture series and to lead discussions with the trainees. The UNU Visiting Lecturers have stayed from about two weeks to two months in Reykjavik. The following have been UNU Visiting Lecturers:

1979 Donald E. White USA 1980 Christopher Armstead UK

1981 Derek H. Freeston New Zealand 1982 Stanley H. Ward USA

1983 Patrick Browne New Zealand 1984 Enrico Barbier Italy

1985 Bernardo Tolentino Philippines 1986 Russel James New Zeal.

1987 Robert Harrison UK 1988 Robert O. Fournier USA

1989 Peter Ottlik Hungary 1990 Andre Menjoz France

1991 Wang Ji-yang P.R. China 1992 Patrick Muffler USA

1993 Zosimo F. Sarmiento Philippines 1994 Ladislaus Rybach Switzerland

(UNU Fellow 1980) 1995 Gudmundur Bodvarsson USA

1996 John Lund USA 1997 Toshihiro Uchida Japan

1998 Agnes Reyes Philippines/New Zealand

(UNU Fellow 1979)

Many of the lectures of the UNU Visiting Lecturers have been published by the Training Programme and are listed by author in the reference list. Some of these have served as important teaching material. Copies of the publications are available on request. A separate list is available on all reports published by the UNU Geothermal Training Programme.

5. BUILDING OF SPECIALIST GROUPS AND EVALUATION

Table 1 lists the countries of origin of the participants during 1979-1998 and their specialized courses. The largest groups have come from China (37), Kenya (25), and the Philippines (26). Eight other countries have sent 5-15 participants. The aim of the UNU Geothermal Training Programme is to concentrate its training efforts so as to assist in building up groups of specialists in the geothermal departments of selected countries with significant geothermal potential. Priority for training is given to candidates from carefully selected institutions from developing countries where geothermal exploration and development is already under way. The limiting factor is in some cases the availability of sufficiently qualified staff in the recipient institutions. The fact that participants must speak English fluently has, for example, hampered participation from certain parts of the world such as Latin America. Table 3 shows how the leading recipient countries have sent professionals for specialized training in most of the courses offered. Relatively few experts have been trained in geological exploration and drilling technology, as these subjects are generally mastered in the home countries. The environmental studies course has only been run experimentally for two years, but there is a large demand for training in this course.

Assessment of the training has mainly taken the form of interviews with former trainees and their directors. A representative of the Training Programme visits the main recipient countries every few years, and meetings are also arranged in connection with international geothermal conferences. Some changes have been made in the detailed contents of some of the specialized courses based on the feedback from the trainees and their institutions. But generally speaking, the effort to have the training tailor-made to the abilities of the individual and the needs of the recipient country/institution, seems to have been very successful. The number of fully qualified applicants each year is normally much greater than the number of scholarships available. All the participants are selected after private interviews with staff members of the Training Programme and on the recommendation of the recipient institutions. It is therefore not surprising that many of the former trainees have become the leading specialists in their countries in their given fields. Our records indicate that about 80% of all our trainees are still working in the geothermal sector. A few of the Fellows from the first years of training have gone into retirement.

6. SELECTION OF PARTICIPANTS

Specialized practical training is considerably more expensive than group training because of the high teacher-to-student ratio. On average, a full time teacher takes care of three students during the intensive training. The total cost of training per student in Reykjavik (including international travel and per diem) is over USD 30,000. Much care is therefore taken in selecting the participants. The selection procedures of the UNU are adhered to, which involve site visits by representatives of the Training Programme to the countries of potential candidates and personal interviews with all candidates. The potential role of geothermal energy within the energy plans of the respective country is assessed, and an evaluation made of the institutional capacities in the field of geothermal research and utilization. Based on this, the training needs of the country are assessed and recipient institutions selected.

The candidates must have a university degree in science or engineering, a minimum of one year practical experience in geothermal work, speak English fluently, and have a permanent position at a government energy company, research institution, or university. The directors of such institutions are invited to nominate candidates for training in the specialized fields that are considered most relevant to promote geothermal development in the respective country. Nominations, including the curriculum vitae of the candidates, should be sent to the Training Programme in Iceland. The candidates should normally be under 40 years in age. Training starts in late April and ends in late October each year. Nominations must be received in Reykjavik before 1st August each year for participation in the training starting the following year. Due to the high cost of international travel, site visits for interviewing candidates cannot be held in all requesting countries every year. Therefore, interviews are held in a given country for candidates for two or three years at a time. Participants from developing countries and some Central and Eastern European countries normally receive scholarships financed by the Government of Iceland and the UNU that cover international travel, tuition fees and per diem in Iceland. The participants therefore do not need other funds for their training. The UNDP and the Inetrnational Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) as well as the European Union have also financed fellowships for several trainees through the years. Qualified participants from industrialized countries can also be accepted on condition that they obtain similar scholarships from their own institutions/countries.

7. FINANCES AND THE FUTURE

Figure 1 shows the number of Fellows completing the six months specialized training per year during 1979-1998. In the last five years there have been 15-18 Fellows per year. There is a steady flow of requests from all over the world for training at the UNU Programme, and only a portion of the requests can be met. In view of this, it is planned to continue with the six months specialized research and training as the main activity of the Programme. We intend, however, to start shortly enrolling a few outstanding former UNU Fellows for a M.Sc. Programme in geothermal science and enegineering in cooperation with the University of Iceland. Many of our trainees have already completed their M. Sc. or Ph.D. degrees when they come to Iceland, but several excellent students who have only B. Sc. degrees have made requests to come again to Iceland for a higher academic degree. Their six months studies in Iceland would form a part of their graduate programme.

During 1979-1982, the financing of the UNU Geothermal Programme was shared equally by the UNU and the Government of Iceland. Since then, the Government of Iceland has carried the lions share (approximately 80%) of the annual financing. Through the years, international agencies such as UNDP, the IAEA, and EFTA /EU (Brussels) have financed one to three Fellowships per year. These have both been for six months and shorter periods of time. Fellowships awarded by UNU/Iceland have only been for six months training, apart from a few UNU Special Fellowships for senior scientists for short visits in the early years of the Geothermal Programme. Over seventy people have come for short training and study visits (2 weeks to 4 months) during 1979-1998 in addition to the 213 who have completed the six months training.

Figure 2 shows the annual contribution of the Government of Iceland to the United Nations University for specialized training in Iceland 1979-1999. The contribution is decided in the annual State Budget. The payments for the UNU Geothermal Training Programme go directly to Orkustofnun (NEA). All accounting is kept separate for the UNU Geothermal Programme at Orkustofnun. The accounts are audited annually by the National Audit Office of Iceland. The Government has been very supportive of the Training Programme, and public opinion polls have shown the UNU Geothermal Training Programme being regarded the most successful method of development aid supported by the Government of Iceland.

The UNU Fisheries Training Programme started operating in Iceland in 1998 on the basis of an Agreement on Cooperation betweeen the UNU, the Government of Iceland, and the Marine Research Institute. The training methods and mode of selection of participants is based on the experience of the UNU Geothermal Training Programme. The annual contributions from the Government to the UNU Fisheries Training Programme are paid to the Marine Research Institute. The separate accounts for the UNU Fisheries Programme are audited annually by the National Audit Office of Iceland.

The UNU Fisheries Training Programme is expected to grow in size similar to the Geothermal Programme. The demand for training in fisheries studies is expected to be much larger than in geothermal energy since so many more countries are higly depending on fisheries than geothermal energy. Five specialized courses are offered: Fisheries Policy and Planning; Marine Resources, Assessment and Monitoring; Fishing Technology and Fleet Operations, Fish Handling, Processing and Quality Management; and Management of Fisheries Copmanies and Marketing.

The total contribution of the Icelandic Government for the UNU Geothermal Programme during 1979-1999 amounts to 6.3 million USD, and that for the UNU Fisheries Programme (during 1996-1990) about 0.9 million USD. The total contribution to the UNU activities in Iceland will thus amount to 7.2 million USD. As can be seen from Figure 2, the Icelandic State Budget for 1999 is expected to include a contribution of almost 1 million USD to the training activities of the UNU in Iceland in these two subjects where Iceland is amongst world leaders in expertice. Both of these specialities are of national importance in Iceland, since approximately 70% of the export earnings of Iceland come from fish products, and about 48% of the total primary energy of Iceland is provided by geothermal energy. With a total population of 274.000, Iceland is contributing about USD 3.60 per capita to the training and research activities under the name of the United Nations University. The Government of Iceland considers the UNU a most suitable venue for channelling a part of its multilateral development aid. The feedback from the recipient countries has been very favourable with regard to the geothermal energy training. It is commonly stated in public debate in Iceland that the research and training activities in cooperation with the UNU are the most effective development aid undertaken by Iceland.

The Foreign Minister of Iceland, Mr. Halldor Asgrimsson, said in his opening speech at the 20^th Anniversary Workshop of the UNU Geothermal Training Programme in October 1998, that a significant portion of Iceland's aid for international development will continue to be channeled for supporting the development of high-level manpower in the fields of geothermal energy and fisheries, as well as in other areas for which Iceland has comparative advantage to make significant contribution to international development.

REFERENCES

(See also separate list for Project Reports of UNU Fellows 1989-1997)

Armstead, H.C.H. (1981). Five lectures on geothermal energy. UNU G.T.P., Iceland, Report 2, 109 pp.

Arnason, K., and Hersir, G.P. (1988). One dimensional inversion of Schlumberger resistivity soundings (computer program, description and user's guide). UNU G.T.P., Iceland, Report 8, 59 pp.

Barbier, E. (1985). Review lectures on geothermal energy in the world, European Community and Italy. UNU G.T.P., Iceland, Report 2, 84 pp.

Browne, P. (1984). Lectures on geothermal geology and petrology. UNU G.T.P., Iceland, Report 2, 92 pp.

Bödvarsson, G. (1987). Geothermal reservoir physics. UNU G.T.P., Iceland, Report 2, 131 pp.

Fournier, R.O. (1989). Lectures on geochemical interpretation of hydrothermal waters. UNU G.T.P., Iceland, Report 10, 73 pp.

Freeston, D.H. (1982). Lectures on geothermal energy developments in New Zealand. UNU G.T.P., Iceland, Report 12, 108 pp.

Fridleifsson, I.B. (1985). The Geothermal Training Programme of the United Nations University in Iceland. Geothermal Resources Council Transactions, Vol. 9, pp. 255-260.

Fridleifsson, I.B. (1990). The UNU Geothermal Training Programme in Iceland 1979-1990. Geothermal Resources Council Transactions, Vol. 14, pp. 889-896.

Fridleifsson, I.B. (1995). Geothermal Training in Iceland 1979-1995. Proceedings of the World Geothermal Congress 1995, Florence, Italy, p. 2929-2934.

Harrison, R., (1987). Engineering economics of geothermal heating applications. UNU G.T.P., Iceland, Report 5, 195 pp.

Hersir, G.P. and Björnsson, A. (1991). Geophysical exploration for geothermal resources. Principles and application. UNU G.T.P., Iceland, Report 15. 94 pp.

James, R. (1986). Lectures on geothermal engineering. UNU G.T.P., Iceland, Report 13, 49 pp.

Karlsson, T. (1982). Geothermal district heating, the Iceland experience. UNU G.T.P., Iceland, Report 4, 116 pp.

Kjaran, S.P., and Eliasson, J. (1983). Geothermal reservoir engineering, lecture notes. UNU G.T.P., Iceland, Report 2, 250 pp.

Lund, J.W. (1987). Direct use of geothermal energy. UNU G.T.P., Iceland, Report 3, 150 pp.

Lund, J.W. (1996). Lectures on direct utilization of geothermal energy. UNU G.T.P., Iceland, Report 1, 123 pp.

Menjoz, A. (1990). Lectures on the characterization and exploitation of geothermal reservoirs in France. UNU G.T.P., Iceland, Report 2, 89 pp.

Ottlik, P. (1989). Lectures on geothermics in Hungary. UNU G.T.P., Iceland, Report 11, 45 pp.

Sarmiento, Z.F. (1993). Geothermal development in the Philippines. UNU G.T.P., Iceland, Report 2, 99 pp.

Sigurdsson, F. (1987). Hydrogeology and geohydrology. UNU G.T.P., Iceland, Report 6, 49 pp.

Stefansson, V. and Steingrimsson, B. (1981). Geothermal logging I, an introduction to techniques and interpretation. National Energy Authority, Iceland, Report OS80017/JHD09, 117 pp.

Tolentino, B.S. (1986). Lectures on geothermal energy in the Philippines. UNU G.T.P., Iceland, Report 12, 148 pp.

Wang Ji-yang (1992). Lectures on geothermal resources and development in China. UNU G.T.P., Iceland, Report 2, 36 pp.

Ward, S.H. (1983). Controlled source electromagnetic methods in geothermal exploration. UNU G.T.P., Iceland, Report 4, 46 pp.

Ward, S.H., and Sill, W.R. (1983). Resistivity, induced polarization, and self-potential methods in geothermal exploration. UNU G.T.P., Iceland, Report 3, 94 pp.

Ward, S.H., and Wannamaker, P.E. (1983). The MT/AMT electromagnetic method in geothermal exploration. UNU G.T.P., Iceland, Report 5, 107 pp.

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